<div>Abstract:</div><div>This study investigates the reproductive behaviors and adaptive
diversity of Indian Pariah Dogs (<i>Canis lupus familiaris</i> ) within
the Indian subcontinent. These ancient dogs, known for their unique
characteristics and close relationship with ancestral wolf populations,
exhibit intriguing mating patterns and possess remarkable adaptability.
As human-driven changes threaten their existence, understanding their
reproductive strategies and genetic diversity is crucial for
conservation efforts. This research also highlights their cultural and
ecological significance in both rural and urban communities. In summary,
this study provides valuable insights into the multifaceted role of
Indian Pariah Dogs in the subcontinent’s ecosystem and history.</div><div>Keywords: Dogs, Ethology, Behavioural Ecology</div><div>Introduction:</div><div>The Indian Pariah Dog, scientifically referred to as <i>Canis&nbsp;</i><i>lupus</i> <i>familiaris</i> , is an ancient domestic dog breed
originating from the Indian subcontinent. It goes by various names,
including Desi Dogs, INDogs, Pye-Dogs, or South Asian Pariah Dogs, and
is recognized for its distinctive physical traits, such as erect ears, a
wedge-shaped head, a curved tail, and a short coat with diverse colors.
Renowned for their adaptability, intelligence, and loyalty, these dogs
have shared a longstanding companionship with humans for millennia.
Studying the breeding behaviors and adaptive diversity of Indian Pariah
Dogs holds significant importance for several reasons. Firstly, it aids
in unraveling the evolutionary history and genetic diversity of domestic
dogs, as they are closely linked to the ancestral wolf population, which
contributed to the development of all modern dog breeds. Secondly, this
research plays a vital role in identifying and safeguarding the unique
attributes of this ancient breed, which face potential threats from
crossbreeding, urbanization, and human intervention. Lastly, it
highlights the cultural and ecological significance of these dogs in
both rural and urban communities across India and South Asia. They serve
diverse roles, including companionship, guardianship, pest control, and
more, further emphasizing their integral role in these communities.</div><div>Materials and Methods:</div><div>Study Area and Data Collection</div><div>The study was conducted across various regions within Bangladesh,
encompassing both rural and urban environments.</div><div>Sample Population</div><div>A diverse sample of Indian Pariah Dogs (<i>Canis lupus familiaris</i> )
from different geographical locations was included. The sample size
consisted of 3 individuals, encompassing various age groups and genders.</div><div>Behavioral Observations</div><div>Reproductive behaviors were observed and recorded using a combination of
direct observations and camera traps. Key behaviors included courtship,
mating, territorial marking, and pup-rearing activities.</div><div>Genetic Analysis</div><div>DNA samples were collected non-invasively via hair, saliva, and fecal
samples. Genetic diversity was assessed using microsatellite markers and
mitochondrial DNA analysis. Population structure and relatedness were
determined through genotyping.</div><div>Data Analysis</div><div>Statistical software was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics,
including mean, standard deviation, and frequency distributions, were
computed for behavioral data. Genetic diversity indices (e.g., allelic
richness, heterozygosity) were calculated to assess genetic variability.</div><div>Ethnographic Studies</div><div>Interviews and surveys were conducted in local communities to gather
information on the cultural and ecological significance of Indian Pariah
Dogs. Qualitative data from interviews were analyzed thematically.</div><div>Conservation Implications</div><div>The findings were used to assess the reproductive strategies and
adaptability of Indian Pariah Dogs. Conservation recommendations were
formulated based on the study’s results.</div><div>Data Integration</div><div>Behavioral observations, genetic data, and ethnographic findings were
integrated to provide a comprehensive understanding of Indian Pariah
Dogs’ roles in the ecosystem and culture.</div><div>Limitations</div><div>Challenges included the non-invasive collection of genetic samples and
the need for extensive fieldwork in diverse environments.</div><div>Statistical Analysis</div><div>Data were analyzed using statistical tests/methods, with significance
levels. Results were presented graphically, including bar charts,
scatterplots, and phylogenetic trees.</div><div>Data Availability</div><div>Data collected during this study will be made available to the
scientific community for further research and conservation efforts.</div><div>Results:</div><div>Indian Pariah Dogs are free-ranging dogs that live in close association
with humans in many parts of India. They are considered to be one of the
oldest and most primitive breeds of dogs, with a genetic makeup that is
similar to that of wolves. They have a complex social system that is
influenced by ecological and anthropogenic factors, such as food
availability, human interference, and population density. In this essay,
I will focus on two aspects of their social system: dominance hierarchy
and mate selection, and group dynamics during mating season.</div><div>Indian Pariah Dogs form loose social groups that consist of several
males and females, with a variable degree of relatedness. Within these
groups, there is a dominance hierarchy that is established through
agonistic interactions, such as growling, barking, chasing, biting, and
submissive postures . The dominant individuals have priority access to
food resources, resting sites, and mating partners. The dominance rank
of an individual can change over time, depending on its age, health, and
social support. The mating system of Indian Pariah Dogs is
polygynandrous, meaning that both males and females mate with multiple
partners during the breeding season. However, there is some evidence of
mate choice and mate guarding among these dogs (Kappeler et al, 2002).</div><div>The reproductive cycle and fertility of the Indian pariah dog, also
known as the Indian native dog or the desi dog, are influenced by
various factors, such as seasonality, nutrition, health, and human
intervention. Have a look on it below:</div><div>Estrus cycle and ovulation: The estrus cycle of the female Indian
pariah dog lasts from 18 to 21 days, with two phases: proestrus and
estrus. Proestrus is characterized by mild swelling of the vulva and a
bloody discharge, lasting for about 9 days. During this phase, the
female may attract males, but she is not ready to mate and will reject
their advances. Estrus is the phase when the female is receptive to
the male and ovulation occurs. The discharge becomes lighter in colour
and the vulva becomes very enlarged and soft. This stage may last 3 to
4 days or as long as 7 to 11 days. Ovulation usually occurs around the
second or third day of estrus, but it can vary depending on the
individual and environmental factors. The optimal time for mating is
determined by vaginal smears and blood tests that can detect changes
in the cells and hormones of the female¹. After estrus, the female
enters diestrus, which is the luteal phase of the cycle. This stage
lasts 60 to 90 days if no pregnancy has occurred or until the female
gives birth. During diestrus, the discharge becomes redder, the vulva
returns to its normal size, and the female will no longer accept the
male for mating. The final stage of the cycle is anestrus, which is
the period of sexual inactivity between two cycles (George Brill et
al, 2022).</div><div>Factors influencing fertility rates: The fertility rates of the Indian
pariah dog are affected by several factors, such as seasonality,
nutrition, health, and human intervention. Seasonality refers to the
variation in reproductive activity according to the seasons and
climatic conditions. Studies have shown that street dogs in India have
a seasonal breeding pattern, with peak estrus and pregnancy occurring
in the late/post-monsoon season (September to November), followed by a
peak in pup proportions (December to February). This may be related to
the availability of food and water resources, as well as temperature
and photoperiod. Nutrition is another important factor that influences
fertility rates, as poor nutrition can impair reproductive function
and reduce litter size. Street dogs in India often suffer from
malnutrition and parasitic infections, which can affect their body
condition and reproductive performance¹. Health status is also a
factor that affects fertility rates, as diseases and injuries can
compromise reproductive function and survival. Street dogs in India
are exposed to various health risks, such as rabies, canine distemper,
parvovirus, leptospirosis, mange, ticks, fleas, worms, and trauma.
Human intervention is a factor that can either increase or decrease
fertility rates, depending on the type and extent of intervention. On
one hand, human intervention can provide food, water, shelter, and
veterinary care to street dogs, which can improve their reproductive
capacity. On the other hand, human intervention can also involve
sterilization and vaccination programs that aim to control street dog
populations and prevent zoonotic diseases. These programs can reduce
fertility rates and reproductive success of street dogs.</div><div>The courtship and mating behaviors of pariah dogs:</div><div>Vocalizations and Body Language: Pariah dogs, also known as Indian
native dogs or street dogs, engage in a variety of vocalizations and
display specific body language during courtship. These behaviors play a
crucial role in attracting potential mates and establishing social bonds
within the pack.</div><div>Vocalizations: Pariah dogs use a range of vocalizations, including
barking, howling, and whining, as a means of communication during
courtship. For instance, males may engage in prolonged, rhythmic
howling to announce their presence and attract females (Bhattacharjee,
2011).</div><div>Body Language: Body language is a significant aspect of pariah dog
courtship. Males often display assertive and confident postures, such
as erect tails, raised hackles, and direct eye contact when
approaching a potential mate (Prabhakar et al., 2010). This body
language signifies their readiness to engage in courtship rituals.</div><div>Rituals and Displays During Courtship: Pariah dogs engage in various
courtship rituals and displays to establish bonds and initiate mating.
These behaviors are essential for ensuring successful reproduction and
maintaining social harmony within the pack.</div><ol><li>Playful Chasing: Courtship often begins with playful chasing between
the male and female. This behavior allows them to assess each other’s
physical fitness and compatibility as potential mates (Prabhakar et
al., 2010).</li><li>Sniffing and Nudging: During courtship, pariah dogs frequently engage
in sniffing and nudging each other, particularly in the genital and
anal regions. This behavior helps them gather information about the
other dog’s reproductive status and readiness to mate (Boitani et al.,
2015).</li><li>Submissive Gestures: Females may exhibit submissive behaviors, such as
lowering their bodies, tucking their tails, and allowing males to
approach and mount them (Bhattacharjee, 2011). These gestures indicate
their willingness to mate.</li><li>Group Dynamics: Courtship rituals in pariah dogs are often observed
within the context of their social groups or packs. Other pack members
may play various roles, such as supporting or interfering with the
courtship process, depending on their social hierarchy and
relationships (Boitani et al., 2015).</li></ol><div>Here are some behavioral adaptations of pariah dogs:</div><div>Hunting and Foraging Strategies:</div><div>Pariah dogs have evolved several hunting and foraging strategies that
enable them to thrive in a wide range of environments. These adaptations
are crucial for their survival as scavengers and opportunistic
predators.</div><ul><li>Scavenging: Pariah dogs are adept scavengers, relying on their keen
sense of smell and opportunistic behavior to locate and consume food
scraps and carcasses (Boitani et al., 2015). This scavenging behavior
allows them to exploit various food resources in urban and rural
settings.</li><li>Group Hunting: In some instances, pariah dogs may form small hunting
packs to take down larger prey or scavenge in groups. This cooperative
hunting behavior enhances their chances of success (Bose et al.,
2020).</li><li>Nocturnal Activity: Pariah dogs often exhibit nocturnal or crepuscular
hunting behavior, which helps them avoid human activity and extreme
daytime temperatures in certain regions (Vanak et al., 2009).</li></ul><div>Survival Instincts and Problem-Solving Abilities:</div><div>Pariah dogs have developed strong survival instincts and problem-solving
abilities that aid their adaptation to various environmental challenges.</div><ul><li>Shelter Selection: Pariah dogs are skilled at selecting safe and
concealed shelters, such as abandoned buildings or dense vegetation,
to protect themselves from adverse weather conditions and predators
(Bose et al., 2020).</li><li>Social Cooperation: They exhibit social behaviors that promote
cooperation within their packs, such as sharing food resources and
caring for pups communally. This social structure enhances their
chances of survival (Vanak et al., 2009).</li><li>Adaptability to Urban Environments: Pariah dogs have demonstrated
remarkable adaptability to urban environments by learning to navigate
traffic, scavenge for food, and avoid human conflicts (D’Cruze et al.,
2018).</li><li>Problem Solving: Research has shown that pariah dogs possess
problem-solving abilities, such as finding novel ways to access food
sources and overcoming obstacles in their environment (Vanak et al.,
2009).</li></ul><div>These behavioral adaptations have enabled pariah dogs to successfully
occupy a wide range of ecological niches and coexist with humans in
various settings, from rural villages to bustling cities.</div><div>Factors influencing breeding and adaptive diversity in pariah dogs:</div><ul><li>Climate and Geographical Variations: Climate and geographical
variations play a crucial role in shaping breeding and adaptive
diversity in pariah dogs. Research by Bhadra et al. (2013) found that
pariah dogs in different regions exhibit distinct adaptations to local
climates, such as thicker fur in colder regions and leaner body types
in warmer regions.</li><li>Availability of Resources and Habitat Types: The availability of
resources like food and shelter, as well as the type of habitat,
greatly influence breeding patterns. Studies by Vanak et al. (2007)
have shown that pariah dogs in urban areas tend to have smaller litter
sizes and higher pup survival rates due to better access to food and
shelter compared to their counterparts in rural areas.</li><li>Domestication and Selective Breeding: Human influence has played a
significant role in shaping the genetics of pariah dogs. Historical
domestication events have led to various selective pressures. Studies
like that by Thalmann et al. (2013) have identified genetic markers
associated with domestication, which have influenced the breeding and
behavior of pariah dogs over time.</li><li>Impact of Urbanization and Habitat Loss: Urbanization and habitat loss
have substantial impacts on pariah dog breeding patterns. Research by
Doherty et al. (2017) highlights how urbanization can lead to
increased inbreeding among pariah dogs due to restricted movement and
smaller populations in urban areas.</li></ul><div>A. Importance of preserving genetic diversity: Preserving genetic
diversity in pariah dogs is crucial for maintaining the resilience and
adaptability of this unique population. Genetic diversity enhances their
ability to withstand environmental changes and disease outbreaks
(Frankham, 2005). It is vital to maintain a diverse gene pool to prevent
potential inbreeding issues that can lead to health problems (Ostrander
et al., 2017).


B. Strategies for promoting responsible breeding practices: Promoting
responsible breeding practices among pariah dog populations is essential
to prevent overpopulation and maintain health. Implementing spaying and
neutering programs can help control population growth (Levy et al.,
2003). Encouraging responsible ownership through education on breeding
ethics and the importance of breed standards can also be effective
(American Veterinary Medical Association, 2021).


C. Conservation efforts for protecting Indian Pariah Dog populations:
Conservation efforts for Indian Pariah Dogs should focus on habitat
preservation and population monitoring. Protected areas should be
established to safeguard their natural habitats, and wildlife corridors
should be maintained to ensure connectivity (Mukherjee et al., 2010).
Collaborative efforts with local communities for coexistence and
education on the value of these dogs in maintaining ecological balance
are also critical (Karanth et al., 2011).</div><div>Conclusion:</div><div>The research on the Indian Pariah Dog, also known as the Desi Dog,
reveals its unique adaptability and reproductive fitness. These dogs
have a short gestation period and large litters, indicating their
ability to thrive in challenging environments. Their breeding behaviors
are influenced by social hierarchies, and they exhibit remarkable
diversity in coat colors, sizes, and ear shapes due to their long
history in various ecological niches in India. This research not only
enhances our understanding of canine evolution but also provides
insights for conservation efforts, as these dogs are one of the oldest
breeds and can serve as a model for protecting indigenous dog breeds
facing similar challenges.</div><div>Reference:</div><div>American Veterinary Medical Association. (2021). Responsible breeding of
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