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\begin{document}

\title{Combating the Devastating Effects of Cotton Bollworm: Case of Uzbekistan}



\author[1]{Gavharhon Shokirova}%
\author[2]{Zuhriddin Juraev}%
\affil[1]{Ferghana State University}%
\affil[2]{Chonnam National University}%


\vspace{-1em}



  
  \date{June 14, 2024}


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\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
Bollworm poses a significant threat to cotton crops worldwide, including
in the Fergana province of Uzbekistan. This study aims to explore
innovative approaches to bollworm control and contribute to the global
understanding of integrated pest management strategies (IPM). Using an
extensive literature review and field observations, the study evaluates
the effectiveness of an integrated protection system in reducing
reliance on chemical inputs while increasing overall efficiency. The
results highlight the multigenerational life cycle of bollworm, its
impact on various crops, and the need for artificial biological control
methods and targeted insecticide applications. In addition, the study
highlights the need to adopt globally accepted IPM practices to ensure
sustainable pest management. The findings underscore the importance of
collaboration among researchers, farmers, policymakers, and industry
representatives in developing and implementing advanced control
measures. Through integrated approaches and the incorporation of
scientific advances, bollworm infestations can be contained while
safeguarding agricultural productivity and minimizing environmental
risks.%
\end{abstract}%



\sloppy


\textbf{Combating the Devastating Effects of Cotton Bollworm: Case of
Uzbekistan}

Gavharhon Shokirova\textsuperscript{1,*}, Zuhriddin
Juraev\textsuperscript{2}

\textsuperscript{1} Ph.D., Docent, Department of Biology, Ferghana State
University, Ferghana, Uzbekistan.

\textbf{*Corresponding author:} Gavharhon Shokirova

Email: gavharhonshokirova@gmail.com / ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8888-7759

\textsuperscript{2} Ph.D., Student, Graduate School, Department of
Geography, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea.

Email: 198928@jnu.ac.kr / ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6804-7273

\textbf{Abstract}

Bollworm poses a significant threat to cotton crops worldwide, including
in the Fergana province of Uzbekistan. This study aims to explore
innovative approaches to bollworm control and contribute to the global
understanding of integrated pest management strategies (IPM). Using an
extensive literature review and field observations, the study evaluates
the effectiveness of an integrated protection system in reducing
reliance on chemical inputs while increasing overall efficiency. The
results highlight the multigenerational life cycle of bollworm, its
impact on various crops, and the need for artificial biological control
methods and targeted insecticide applications. In addition, the study
highlights the need to adopt globally accepted IPM practices to ensure
sustainable pest management. The findings underscore the importance of
collaboration among researchers, farmers, policymakers, and industry
representatives in developing and implementing advanced control
measures. Through integrated approaches and the incorporation of
scientific advances, bollworm infestations can be contained while
safeguarding agricultural productivity and minimizing environmental
risks.

\textbf{Keywords:} Bollworm; Cotton crops; Uzbekistan; Integrated pest
management; Sustainable pest management.

\textbf{Preprint of this article is available at:
https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/202306.1512/v1}

\textbf{Introduction}

Cotton production is a major agricultural sector involving over one
hundred countries worldwide. Major cotton-producing countries, including
India, China, the United States, Brazil, and Pakistan, grow cotton on
about 35 million hectares and produce about 27 million tons of cotton
fiber annually (www.theworldcounts.com, 2022). Effective control of
pests and diseases through biological, chemical, and agrotechnical
methods is critical to ensuring high-quality and abundant cotton
harvests, as well as protecting various other crops (Mollaee et al.,
2019). However, the increasing insect population worldwide poses a major
challenge to the environment and biodiversity (Roy et al., 2023). Each
year, a significant portion of global crop production, ranging from 20\%
to 40\%, is lost due to pest infestations. The Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations reports that plant diseases alone
result in a staggering \$220 billion economic loss annually, while
invasive insects account for an additional \$70 billion. Weeds also pose
a significant biotic constraint on global food production
(www.unfoundation.org: November 2022). Protecting human health, meeting
global agricultural needs, preserving the environment, and protecting
crops from pests have therefore become urgent priorities (UN Climate
Change). Urgent tasks include the expansion of biological laboratories,
the widespread application of biological methods, the timely
implementation of agrotechnical practices, and the study of the
effective use of selective chemical preparations. Among the numerous
insect pests, the cotton bollworm (\emph{Helicoverpa armigera} ) stands
out because of its omnivorous feeding habits and the significant damage
it can cause. The scientific importance lies in the research of
preventive measures against the bollworm, such as the use of pheromone
traps and artificial butterfly traps (Li et al., 2022; Melikuziyev et
al., 2022). Currently, the use of biological means to protect cotton and
other crops is extensively practiced in three regions of the Fergana
Valley in Uzbekistan. However, the effectiveness of the use of
Trichogramma, Bracon and Golden Eye entomophages is influenced by human
factors, so research is needed to improve the efficiency of biological
methods and to develop scientifically sound agrotechnical measures for
bollworm control (Yuldasheva et al., 2022). Therefore, conducting
scientific research in this area is of utmost importance.

This study, conducted under the priority research
project\emph{``Agriculture, Biotechnology, Ecology and Environmental
Protection''} , falls under the initiative to promote science and
technology in Uzbekistan (www.lex.uz). The study focuses specifically on
cotton fields in Uzbekistan, particularly in the Fergana region, and is
a case study based on practical research. The main objective of this
study is to improve the effectiveness of bollworm control in the Fergana
region by optimizing protection means, methods, and associated costs.
Proposals are also made for the development of a comprehensive control
approach that includes agrotechnical measures. The study focuses on
companion crops heavily affected by bollworms, such as cotton, corn,
tomato, pea, and sunflower. It examines the methods and means of an
integrated protection system used to protect cotton from bollworm
infestation. While numerous scientific studies on bollworm control are
being conducted in cotton-growing countries, comprehensive research
addressing existing challenges, optimization of control agents and
methods, consideration of associated costs, and improvement of the
overall control system by incorporating agrotechnical measures is still
relatively unexplored in the Fergana Valley.

\textbf{Theoretical Background}

The study of bollworm control in cotton production includes several
theoretical frameworks and approaches that provide a solid foundation
for understanding and managing insect pests (Prasanna et al., 2022).
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an important theoretical framework
for bollworm control. It emphasizes ecosystem-based strategies that
integrate biological, cultural, and chemical methods of pest control
while minimizing environmental impacts. Implementing the principles of
IPM reduces reliance on chemical insecticides, promotes natural pest
control mechanisms, and improves the long-term sustainability of cotton
production systems (Ortega-Ramos et al., 2022; Jowett et al., 2022). The
study's focus on implementing an integrated protection system is
consistent with the principles of IPM and reflects a holistic and
environmentally conscious approach to bollworm control (Ortega-Ramos et
al., 2022). Agroecology is another relevant theoretical framework that
emphasizes the intricate interactions among crops, pests, and the
broader agroecosystem. By promoting ecological processes, agroecology
aims to create resilient and balanced agricultural systems. Integrating
agroecological principles into bollworm management includes using
natural enemies, promoting biodiversity, improving soil health, and
diversifying habitats. The study's focus on optimizing agrotechnical
measures and developing comprehensive control methods demonstrates the
integration of agroecological concepts in bollworm control.

The concept of ecological resilience is highly relevant to the bollworm
control study. Ecological resilience refers to the ability of an
ecosystem to withstand disturbance while maintaining its structure and
functions (Schneider et al., 2022). Building ecological resilience in
crop protection means promoting biodiversity, reducing pesticide use,
and strengthening natural biological control mechanisms. By introducing
measures that increase the resilience of cotton fields to bollworm
infestation, such as incorporating biological agents and using
agrotechnical practices, the study is consistent with the overall goal
of improving the ecological resilience of agricultural systems
(Kamburova et al., 2022).

The field of pest management is being shaped by several emerging trends
and studies that have implications for cotton worm control. These
include advances in biological control methods, such as the use of
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or RNA interference (RNAi)
technology to control bollworms (Hilbeck et al., 2020; Fu et al., 2022).
In addition, studies examining the effects of climate change on insect
pest dynamics and exploring strategies for climate-smart pest management
provide valuable insights for adapting bollworm control measures to
changing environmental conditions. By considering these emerging trends
and incorporating relevant research findings, the study contributes to
the ongoing discourse on innovative and sustainable approaches to
bollworm control.

In addition to these established theoretical frameworks and emerging
trends, the inclusion of an ecofeminist approach to the study raises
critical questions about the environmental and social impacts of
bollworm control. Ecofeminism explores the connection between the
oppression of women and the destruction of the natural world (Tong,
2022). The use of chemical insecticides in bollworm control can have
harmful impacts on ecosystems, including soil and water contamination
and harm to non-target organisms. These ecological impacts
disproportionately affect marginalized communities, particularly women
who rely heavily on natural resources for their livelihoods (Barthold et
al., 2022). An ecofeminist perspective emphasizes the need for
alternative, non-hierarchical approaches to pest management that
prioritize ecological harmony and social justice (Ahmad \& Yaquub,
2022). It encourages the exploration of sustainable, community-based
practices that empower local communities and promotes women's
participation in decision-making (Juraev \& Ahn, 2022). It also
emphasizes valuing traditional ecological knowledge and indigenous
practices in pest management (Juraev, 2022).

Incorporating ecofeminist concerns into the study of bollworm control
leads to a critical examination of the social and environmental impacts
of current control methods and encourages the exploration of alternative
approaches that prioritize the well-being of both ecosystems and
marginalized communities. By incorporating an ecofeminist perspective,
the study contributes to a more comprehensive and socially just
understanding of bollworm control in cotton production.

Ecofeminism as an interdisciplinary field includes the work of various
scholars and activists such as Vandana Shiva (2014), Maria Mies (2014),
Carolyn Merchant (2020), and Val Plumwood (2001). Notable works such as
Shiva's ``Staying Alive: Women, Ecology, and Development'' (2016) and
Mies' ``Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale'' (2014) address
the interconnectedness of gender, nature, and social justice (Tong,
2022). The ecofeminist approach is increasingly recognized as a valuable
framework for analyzing environmental problems and advocating for
transformative change (Szopa, 2022). In the specific context of bollworm
control in Uzbekistan, the ecofeminist approach offers insights into the
socio-environmental impacts of current practices and contributes to the
development of alternative and sustainable pest management strategies
(Yusupova \& Gapparov, 2020). While the applicability of ecofeminist
approaches may vary depending on local context and cultural factors, the
principles of ecological harmony, social justice, and community
empowerment are universally relevant (Winston, 2022). Incorporating
ecofeminist concerns into the study of bollworm control in Uzbekistan
illuminates the gendered dimensions of pest management and promotes
inclusive decision-making processes that prioritize the well-being of
ecosystems and marginalized communities.

\textbf{Methods and Findings}

Rigorous methods from entomology, agricultural entomology, and
agro-toxicology were used in the study. Data obtained from laboratory
experiments and small and large field trials were subjected to
statistical analysis using Microsoft Excel based on the dispersion
method.

The research presents several important scientific findings. For the
first time, field experiments were conducted using agrotechnical
measures in cotton production. A comparison with fields where wheat was
planted between cotton rows showed a 25\% reduction in bollworm numbers.
A comparative analysis between fields where cut growth sites were left
between cotton rows and fields where litter was collected and removed
showed that the latter approach had higher efficiency, with bollworm
infestation reductions ranging from 36\% to 42\%. The use of mineral
fertilizers and chemical control agents against bollworms in cotton
management showed the potential to increase yields by up to 63.7\%.
Monitoring with pheromones contributed to a 30-40\% increase in
biological efficiency. Determining optimal timing for science-based
chemical treatments resulted in an additional 3.2 quintals of crop per
hectare and an economic benefit of 442,000 UZS (or USD 400).

Acceptable efficacy against bollworms and sucking pests were achieved
with Duet (55\% emulsion concentrate) at a rate of 1.5 L/ha and Progress
Plus (44\% emulsion concentrate) at the same rate. Agrotechnical
interventions such as fall plowing, salt washing, cultivation, provision
of local and mineral fertilizers, retailing, and irrigation were
evaluated for their acute and subsequent effects on cotton crops.
Practical recommendations were made that resulted in a decrease in
cotton seed loss from 10-12\% to 80-90\%. The organic method based on
pheromone traps (pheromone monitoring) showed increased efficiency
resulting in an additional yield of 1.4 quintals per acre, an increase
in cotton product value of \$1.53 for every dollar spent on protection,
and an increase in profitability to 153\%.

Thus, by following the scientifically recommended periods for active
bollworm control, the use of emamectin benzoate, indoxacarb, and
methomyl during the presence of medium and large juvenile worms resulted
in an additional yield of up to 5 quintals per acre. The scientific
significance of these research results lies in the evaluation of the
seasonal development of the bollworm, its role in agro-biocoenoses, and
its links with arthropods under the climatic conditions of the Fergana
Valley (see also, Shokirova \& Abdullaeva, 2020; Nazirkulomovna, 2022).
The damage caused by bollworms to cotton crops and the effectiveness of
various control measures, including both biological and chemical
approaches, contribute to the integration of various tools into a
comprehensive protection system. From a practical perspective, the
research results are important for understanding the importance of each
measure used in cotton agronomy to control bollworms. The effective use
of bio-methods, insecticides, and the evaluation of pheromone monitoring
and other physical-mechanical methods were demonstrated. Based on
scientific research, practical recommendations were developed to
increase the effectiveness of cotton protection against bollworms and to
optimize the associated costs.

Consequently, a recommendation entitled ``Modern control system against
cotton bollworm'' was published for the protection of cotton and other
infested crops in the regions of the Fergana Valley (Tilyabaev et al.,
2018; Nazirkulomovna, 2022). Application of recommended doses of
Entovant, Entovant PRO (0.2-0.45 liters/kilogram per hectare),
''Prokleim'', ''Emamek'' and ''Emaben Surender'' has achieved an
acceptable level of protection and resulted in an additional yield of
3-4 quintals per hectare. Successful implementation of these measures on
certain farms in Toshlok District and Oltiarik District resulted in
yield increases from 2.5 quintals/hectare to 4.0 t/ha. A total of 5560
hectares of cotton fields in the Fergana region benefited from the
application of the active ingredients Entovant, Entovant PRO (0.2-0.45
liters/kilogram per hectare), Proklam, Surender, and Abamectin at a rate
of 0.35 kilograms/hectare. This resulted in the economic efficiency of
2,176,000 UZS (approximately \$200) per hectare compared to the average
control and 1,900,000 UZS (approximately \$170) compared to the standard
treatment (Decis 2.5\% e.m.g. at a rate of 0.7 liters/hectare).

\textbf{The cotton bollworm and its control: bioecological definition
and damage.}

The cotton bollworm, which belongs to the butterfly family (Lepidoptera)
Noctuidae, is a widespread insect species on Earth. There are over 200
species of bollworms in Central Asian countries, including various
aphids that damage cotton and other crops. The most widespread and
destructive species is the cotton bollworm. Because it feeds primarily
on cotton bolls, the insect is commonly referred to as the ''cotton
bollworm'' (see Figure 1). This pest is found in many countries around
the world, including Indochina, the Middle East, Africa, South America,
and the eastern part of Australia. The family Noctuidae includes more
than 35,000 known species of moths, making it the most widely
distributed horned caterpillar species in the world (Malinga \& Laing,
2022; Alam, 2022). Consequently, numerous studies have focused on these
pests in Uzbekistan. For instance, in experiments conducted between 1985
and 1990, Uzbek scientist M.I. Rashidov recorded 51 species of pests
from 15 families of ``Solanaceae''. Among them, six aphid species were
identified as harmful to tomatoes. Rashidov's research also revealed
that 17 species from the Lepidoptera Noctuidae family were present in
the agro-biocenosis and caused damage to agricultural crops. Rashidov
emphasized that without the inclusion of entomophagous organisms, it is
impossible to achieve 100\% results in integrated pest management for
agricultural crops. In cotton production alone, entomophagous organisms
have an efficiency of 85-90\% and reduce pest populations below
economically harmful levels (Rashidov \& Khodzhaev, 2000).\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image1/image1}

\end{center}
\end{figure}

\textbf{Figure 1. Cotton bollworm, life forms and damage to
cotton}(Figure prepared by the author).

1 -- female () and male () butterfly breeds; 2 -- an egg laid on a
leaf; 3 -- drying of the damaged bone; 4 -- damaged cyst; 5 -- damage to
the comb; 6 -- internal view of the affected cyst; 7 -- nightshades.

Those relying solely on chemical protection methods cannot achieve such
high efficiency. Moreover, long-term observations by scientist Khojaev
Sh., have shown that a single cotton crop in Uzbekistan is damaged by 14
species of underground and above-ground ants and seven species of tomato
root-gnawing ants (Gofurjonovich \& Ibodullaevna, 2022). In particular,
the autumn moth and the night moth contributed most to the damage. The
bollworm is particularly prevalent in Central Asia and southern regions
of Russia, causing significant damage to agricultural crops
(Muhammadzikirovna, 2022). In Uzbekistan, it causes damage to cotton
plantations in regions such as Surkhandarya, Kashkadarya, Fergana,
Andijan, and Namangan. In recent years, it has increasingly infested
cultivated areas in Bukhara, Khorezm, Karakalpakstan, and the Tashkent
region. On cotton farms in the Andijan and Fergana regions of the
Fergana Valley, bollworm is a recurring problem. Several factors
contribute to this problem, including the cultivation of crops preferred
by the bollworm (such as maize, vegetables, and legumes) on open land
after grain harvest.

The cotton bug can also be classified as a significant insect. The adult
butterfly has a wingspan of 30-40 mm and a body that ranges in color
from yellowish-red to bluish-gray. On the upper side of the forewings,
there is a round spot and a kidney-shaped black spot. The sexual
development of the butterfly is incomplete after hatching from the
cocoon, so additional feeding is required. These butterflies usually
begin to fly in April or May when the soil temperature reaches 16\selectlanguage{ngerman}°C at a
depth of 10 cm. The butterflies lay their eggs primarily on the upper
surface of leaves near the plant's growing point, either singly or in
groups. The eggs have an apartment and round shape on the underside and
measure 0.5-0.7 mm in diameter and 0.4-0.5 mm in length. They have 26-28
ribs, which are characteristic of solanaceous plants. Under
magnification, the eggs look old and resemble empty containers when the
trichogram flies emerge. Some eggs fail to hatch. The color of the
caterpillar varies with diet and age, reaching 2.5-3.0 cm in length when
fully grown (at about 5-6 years of age). The cotton bollworm goes
through five molting stages during its six-year lifespan and builds a
nest before each molt. The anal openings at the posterior end of the
caterpillar body distinguish between female (\selectlanguage{english}) and male (\selectlanguage{english}) individuals
(Figure 2). About 8-12 days after egg laying, the next generation of
butterflies hatches from the buds. Under the conditions of Uzbekistan,
the cotton bollworm goes through four to five generations per year, with
three to four generations infesting cotton crops. Several experts have
studied the cotton bollworm in detail, including its bioecological
characteristics, distribution, target crops, the extent of damage, and
methods of protection. In particular, the development of short- and
long-term forecasting methods for annual cotton crop trends occupies an
important place among these studies. Predicting the occurrence and
density of bollworm generations in each field is a key issue in pest
management, and scientists have developed several computational methods.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image2/image2}

\end{center}
\end{figure}

\textbf{Figure 2. Cotton Bollworms: -female,  - male} (Author prepared
the picture).

The most recent method used in practice was developed in 1959 Night
Worms by a group of scientists from the Institute of Plant Protection in
Uzbekistan. This method is based on a knowledge-based approach and uses
data from the nearest meteorological stations for each region studied.
The first-generation butterfly begins to fly when the temperature is
constantly above 16\selectlanguage{ngerman}°C at a depth of 10 cm in the uppermost soil layer.
From this point, an effective temperature index is calculated by
subtracting 11°C from the average daily air temperature. Once this sum
reaches 550°C, the emergence of a new generation of butterflies is
expected. Subsequent generations of bollworms are calculated using the
same method (Joel, 2011).

According to this approach, the development of pollen worm populations
in the following year is described as follows. The overwintering phase
begins in August when the air temperature falls below 25°C. The survival
of the bollworm during this period depends on feeding on young worms,
namely cotton whose bolls have begun to open. The effective temperature
is monitored during this period. If the average air temperature in
autumn is between 11°C and 350°C, it means that the conditions are
favorable for the pest to prepare for winter; otherwise, the conditions
are considered unfavorable. The use of pheromone traps containing the
cotton bollworm sex pheromone, introduced in Uzbekistan in the 1980s,
cannot replace the need to predict the next generation of the pest or
its density in the following year. These traps primarily indicate when
the same generation of bollworms will emerge in the same field and
provide information on population density (Tilyabaev et al., 2018).
Despite advances in the methods described above, there are still
unexplained occurrences that underscore the continuing need for
scientific research. Cases such as the significant bollworm outbreaks in
1996 (Karadrina), 1988, 2004, and 2015-2017 in Central Asian countries
remind us that scientific research is limitless. The cotton bollworm has
a wide range of host plants, with more than 250 known species. The main
food source is the fruiting stems of the plants, especially the bolls.
However, the young worms initially feed on soft leaf tissue for one to
two days. In Uzbekistan, cotton is the main host for the cotton
bollworm, but it can also infest other crops such as corn, tomatoes,
peanuts, squash blossoms, tobacco, hemp, peas, peppers, roses, and
various other plants. In all plants and trees, there is excessive flower
production on the stem, which gradually turns into fruit bud drop. The
bollworm damage coefficient, a recently adopted criterion for the level
of economic damage in Uzbekistan, indicates that an average infestation
of 10 bolls per 100 bushels of cotton results in a yield reduction of 1
quintal. It is assumed that there are 10-12 young worms per 100 bushels
of cotton. However, this indicator is from the past when agriculture was
based on old economic relations. Since gaining independence in 1991,
Uzbek agriculture has changed significantly with the introduction of a
new system. Former relations have been broken, and new ones have
emerged. Farmers now could change the criteria for economic damage
caused by pests based on yield. It is our responsibility to pave the way
for the future.

The cotton bollworm has numerous natural enemies, including parasites
and predators. Over 100 natural enemies of the bollworm, including
parasites and predators, have been identified. In the early 20th
century, the importance of the ectoparasite Bracon (Bracon hebetor Sau.)
was recognized. The cocoon of bollworm eggs was studied extensively,
including Trichogramma (Trichogramma sp.) and Bracon within the worm. In
1986, the genus Habrabracon was renamed Bracon. To ensure that the
quality of Trichogramma produced in bio-labs and bio-factories meets the
required standards, a state-approved model was created by the Uzbek
Ministry of Agriculture Resources (www.agro.uz) and Ministry of Water
Resources (www.water.gov.uz).

According to this model, the following criteria must be met for each
female Trichogramma:

\begin{enumerate}
\tightlist
\item
  The number of eggs should not be less than 30.
\item
  The ratio of females to males should be 1.5:1.0 or 2:1.
\item
  The number of laying females should be at least 90\%.
\item
  The viability of females is defined as 89\%, and the number of
  non-viable specimens should not exceed 5\%.
\item
  Females should survive at least 5-7 days at a temperature of 25-29°C.
\item
  At least 80\% of moth eggs should be damaged.
\end{enumerate}

Apanteles (Apanteles cossack) also plays an important role in the
natural reduction of bollworm populations. Another species of Apanteles,
Cotesia, has been described by researchers. I.A. Somov reported the
presence of two species of ichneumon flies in the dome of the bollworm.

\textbf{Beneficial Insects and Bio-Methods in Cotton Agro-Biocoenosis.}

All living organisms have their own natural habits and food preferences.
These preferences create a chain of interactions known as the
``herbivore-pest-natural link'' (see Figure 3). Insects can be divided
into two food groups: Predators, which kill their prey quickly, and
scavengers or ``parasites'', which weaken their prey slowly. Predators
such as goldeneye and ladybug larvae, dragonflies, damselflies, wasps,
and squash bees are generally more effective. Among vertebrates, birds,
especially sparrows, are very effective at controlling pests.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image3/image3}

\end{center}
\end{figure}

\textbf{Figure 3. Examples of spiders found in agro-biocenosis}(Prepared
by the author).

1 -- the caterpillar of the ladybug on a cotton leaf, 2 -- the Apanteles
Cossack spider, which emerges from the body of a cotton spider, 3 -- a
rare carnivorous shield-eating spider worm on a peach trunk, 4 -- its
butterflies, 5 -- the significance of predatory spiders is different.

There are a considerable number of beneficial insects. According to
Mansurov, over 50 different species of bollworms are used naturally. The
total number of bollworm larvae exceeds 150. In this section, we will
discuss some notable species (Khayitov et al., 2021).

(1) Apanteles kazak (Apanteles kazak Tel./Hymenoptera, Braconidae) is a
specialized internal predator and collector of cotton tunnels. It is
found throughout Uzbekistan and neighboring countries of Central Asia
and the Transcaucasus. This small winged insect lays its eggs on the
bodies of first and second-stage cotton bollworm larvae. The larvae of
Apanteles kazak develop inside the bollworm larvae and eventually hatch
as adults from the host's body segments. The bollworm survives only a
few days before dying, while Apanteles kazak larvae hatch from the
bollworm and spin cocoons within 30-40 minutes (www.pestworld.org).

(2) Bracon (Bracon hebetor Say.) and other butterflies are free-feeding
larvae on the surface attacking the bollworm. In Uzbekistan, there are
other species that target the intermediate and adult stages of the pest
(see Figure 4). Historical literature even mentions Bracon and reports
that cockroaches damaged 23-37\% of cotton plants on farms in the
Tashkent region in 1991 and 2002. In August 2011, 8.3-13.7\% of
nightcrawlers in cotton fields in the Pakhtabad district of the Andijan
region were found to be infected with Bracon (www.pestworld.org).\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image4/image4}

\end{center}
\end{figure}

\textbf{Figure 4. Bracon} (prepared by the author).

1- mature breeds; 2- larvae of the paralyzed roundworm and the
caterpillar.

(3) Bracon wasps (family Ichneumonidae) are large insects that
parasitize cotton bollworm caterpillars. They lay their eggs on adult
bollworms, from which larvae mature and hatch from the cocoon. These
species have been discovered in Fergana, Andijan, Tashkent, and
Surkhandarya regions (www.pestworld.org).

(4) Tachinidae (Gonia cilipeda Rd.), also known as ''deer flies''
(Chrysops sp.), are insects that live as parasites in other insects.
Mature Tachinidae lay their eggs on leaves that are unknowingly ingested
by feeding bollworm larvae. The hatched Tachinidae larvae then develop
by consuming the internal contents of the host worm. Finally, the
Tachinidae hatch from the bollworm's body after it has transformed into
a fungus. This complex life cycle helps maintain balance in the insect
world (www.pestworld.org).

(5) The lacewing (Chrysopa carnea Steph.) is an insect that belongs to
the genus Chrysopa and is used as an effective natural control agent
against cotton pests, including bollworms. The powerful jaws of the
lacewing can kill significant numbers of young bollworm larvae. Among
the entomophages in the cotton field bio-coenosis, the lacewing has the
highest population density (see Figure 5). In order to mass produce this
insect, it is bred in bio-labs and bio-factories. Lacewing larvae are
omnivorous and will attack any living organism in their path, including
eggs, larvae, fungi, and adult insects, regardless of species. However,
lacewing propagation is difficult and expensive because they must be
dispersed as live larvae to be effective (www.pestworld.org). (6) The
egg-eating Trichogramma (Trichogramma pintoi Voegele.) is a small insect
belonging to the family Trichogrammatidae, 0.3-0.9 mm long (see Figure
5). Trichogramma played an important role in introducing biological
control and reducing the use of chemical insecticides against bollworms
in Uzbekistan. There are 12 species of Trichogramma adapted to the
climatic conditions of Central Asia and able to survive at high
temperatures and low humidity. Trichogramma hibernates as ``prepupa'' in
infected eggs and begins to hatch when the average air temperature rises
above 8-10\selectlanguage{ngerman}°C, which requires additional food. Male and female races of
Trichogramma differ primarily in the number of joints in their antennae
(5 joints in females and 3 joints in males) and the pubescence of males
(sexual dimorphism). Trichogramma can lay between 1 and 60 eggs in each
pollen egg, depending on the size of the infested egg. In Uzbekistan,
Trichogramma lays an average of 2.1 to 2.4 eggs in each bollworm egg. At
an ambient temperature of 30°C, Trichogramma eggs take about 1 day to
develop into larvae, which then feed on the host (egg) contents for 2-3
days. After this stage, they hatch into the ``prepupa'' or pronymph,
followed by pupation after 1.5-2 days. After darkening and maturing for
3-3.5 days, the infected egg becomes a mature Trichogramma. While
bollworm produces one generation (30-40 days), Trichogramma can produce
offspring 2-3 times. In one season, there can be 12-14 generations.
Trichogramma and Bracon are the main agents used against cotton
bollworms and partially against fall bollworms. It is recommended that
Trichogramma sylvetsin be applied at a rate of 1 gram per acre three to
four times during each bollworm generation. When infestations are heavy
and worms are present in the field, 200 to 2-3 thousand female Bracon
individuals per hectare are applied, usually in mixed batches of males
and females. However, the effectiveness of this approach may vary
(www.pestworld.org).\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image5/image5}

\end{center}
\end{figure}

\textbf{Figure 5. Trichogram (prepared by the author).}

1) Mature breed; 3) Trichogramma-infested nightshade eggs.

The use of lacewings as a live insecticide against sucking pests and
bollworms is often recommended. However, there are several things to
keep in mind. First, lacewing egg application can be expensive.
Recommended ratios for egg application are 1:1 for aphid, spider mite
and cotton mite eggs, 1:10 for larvae and 1:100 for mature brood.
Second, the efficacy of lacewing eggs can be problematic because they
can be eaten by ants in the field. Field observations have shown an
average of 300-350 ants per square meter of cotton bale in July.
Considering these factors, it is advisable to release laboratory-bred
lacewings near the fields, especially in the spring. Although the
biological method is beneficial, there is a need in the field of
entomology for more efficient and less toxic tools and methods.
Therefore, conducting agro-toxicological research in Uzbekistan is of
great importance. This research includes comprehensive testing and
evaluation of pesticides from reputable chemical companies around the
world, as well as domestically produced pesticides to ensure that they
meet the necessary requirements. The research is conducted in accordance
with the ``Procedural Instructions'' published by the State Chemical
Commission under the Joint Stock Company ``Uzkimyosanoat'' (Chemical
Industry) of Uzbekistan (www.uzkimyosanoat.uz).

\textbf{Prevention of harmful organisms and organizational measures}.

These activities are organizational measures to limit agricultural
damage caused by pests, including bollworms, for the coming year without
incurring additional costs. They also include measures to reduce the
pest population. These measures include planning for the coming year,
equipment maintenance, and spring work.

Agrotechnical control methods

Agrotechnical control methods play a crucial role in creating
unfavorable conditions for pest development and favorable conditions for
plant growth. Effective bollworm control measures include fall plowing,
irrigation, cultivation, and application of organic and mineral
fertilizers. Improving cotton cultivation techniques and studying their
impact on bollworm development are important aspects of this approach
(Nazarov et al., 2020).

Physical-mechanical methods

Physical-mechanical methods involve the use of various devices to reduce
pest populations. Examples include the use of ``bags'' to control
bollworms, the construction of pheromone traps that exploit the insect's
sex pheromones, and the use of devices to collect insects in the field,
such as traps that are attracted to light (Sorensen et al., 2016).

Use of biologically active substances

Biologically active substances are used to protect cotton crops. This
includes the use of pheromone traps to control particularly harmful
insects such as bollworms, fall bollworms, and crows. In addition,
biologically active substances may contain attractants to lure insects
or repellents to repel them (Malinga \& Laing, 2022).

Thus, significant research has been conducted since the 1980s on the sex
pheromone of the cotton cutworm, a pest that inflicts damage on cotton
and other crops. In the 1990s, the use of sex pheromones for cotton and
autumn cutworms became widespread. However, further research is needed
in this area, as there are instances where the butterflies do not
respond to the pheromone traps.

\textbf{The Current Bollworm Control System.}

It is important to emphasize that control measures that minimize damage
are preferred. In this regard, experts aim to prepare the control of the
bollworm by delaying its development for a longer period. Over the
years, \emph{``preventive''} treatments are ineffective in controlling
pests. However, methods that reduce the number of pests in subsequent
generations have proven effective. For example, research conducted in
the fall focuses on reducing bollworm offspring by using low-consumption
insecticides to poison the worms as they prepare for winter. A combined
protection system has been established to control bollworms and other
cotton pests. The main objective of this system is to restore the
balance between beneficial and harmful arthropods in nature, primarily
through non-chemical means. In the literature, ''integrated pest
management'' is described as a protection system that combines various
methods, including biological, chemical, agrotechnical, physical,
mechanical, and quarantine methods. These approaches are used in
conjunction with each other. Biological control methods take precedence
in this framework. In Uzbekistan, Trichogramma species (family
Trichogrammatidae) are widely used to control bollworm eggs. There are
12 naturally occurring Trichogramma species in Uzbekistan, which are
found in various crops and ecosystems, especially in meadows.
Trichogramma exhibits high reproductive potential in Uzbekistan, with
14-15 generations possible in a single season. These insects, active
from May to October, are most abundant in July and August. Studies have
shown that two species of Trichogramma are well adapted to climatic
conditions in Central Asia. One species, Trichogrammatidae, thrives at
high temperatures (30\selectlanguage{ngerman}°C) and low humidity (30\%), while the other,
Hymenoptera, is still effective at temperatures of 30°C and humidity of
50\%. In addition to these species, two other Trichogram species are
recommended for use in Uzbekistan during the spring months: Tr.
sugoniaevi Sor. (Hymenoptera) and Tr. evanescens Westw. (Richogramma
evanescens Westwood). These species have shown a higher preference for
air temperature and humidity (Kobiljonovna \& Zaylobidinovna, 2022).

Currently, many insecticides are manufactured by large global pesticide
companies, with smaller companies and ancillary players in the industry
also involved in production. Many analogous products are available with
identical active ingredients but different trade names. For example,
there are 14 analogs of Detsis, 16 of Cypermethrin, 19 of Karate, and 9
of Emamectin Benzoate. Some of these products are manufactured and
agro-toxicologically tested in Uzbekistan. Biologically active
substances are between microbiological and chemical drugs. Among them,
several substances with hormonal activity against bollworms (such as
Dimilin, Eim, Sonnet, and Rimon) have shown promise in cotton research.
However, their practical application remains limited. Biologically
active substances also include the sex pheromones of certain insects.
Many insects enter the mating season after hatching from their cocoons.
This usually occurs 2-3 days after feeding on nectar from plant flowers,
when their reproductive organs have developed. At this time, they
release pheromones into the environment that signal their readiness to
mate and attract insects of the opposite sex. Female insects usually
release the sex pheromone.

The active ingredient in insect pheromones is the most important factor
in their effectiveness. Even a small amount of pheromone, just a few
molecules, can attract a male insect. Pheromones have multiple
biological signaling properties and represent one of the most complex
aspects of chemical ecology. Sex pheromones, trace pheromones, warning
pheromones, territory marking pheromones, and eipheromones are the main
types of insect pheromones. Insect sex pheromones were first isolated
from the silkmoth (Bombyx mori) in 1959 (Abraham al., 1992). Since the
1970s, research on the isolation and identification of insect sex
pheromones has intensified. By 1985, more than 350 insect species (over
160 in the former Soviet Union) were known to use sex pheromones
worldwide. By the 1980s, the composition and major substances of
bollworm sex pheromones were well documented (Tanskii, 1973). The
composition of cotton bollworm sex pheromones consists mainly of major
and minor substances, with Cys-11 hexadecenal accounting for 90\% and
Cys-9 hexadecenal accounting for 10\% of the total composition. A
mixture of these substances in a ratio of 9:1 is dissolved in an alcohol
solution, which is then soaked in rubber tubes and distributed in kits
for practical use. The recommended amount is 2 mg of the substance per
rubber hose (one pheromone handle), and each rubber dispenser remains
active for 15 days before being replaced by a pheromone trap.

Chemically synthesized pheromones that resemble natural pheromones are
used extensively in insect biology and control research. Pheromone traps
containing sex pheromones allow the study of insect phenology,
developmental timing, and population dynamics. In addition, a control
method that uses sex pheromones to trap bollworm moths and remove the
pheromones from the females has been recommended. The use of pheromone
traps for bollworm control has been scientifically established in
Uzbekistan since 1983 (Khodzhaev, 1990). However, further scientific
research is needed in this area. The cotton bollworm sex pheromone is a
two-component compound chemically synthesized and developed by the
Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry.
Every year, cotton bollworm sex pheromone is newly synthesized, and its
purity and activity need to be scientifically evaluated
(www.biochem.uz). There are also new companies producing bollworm sex
pheromones, and these products are being actively tested. In addition,
the use of pheromone traps is critical for studying the effectiveness of
applying trichograms in the field during specific time periods. A small
rubber is inserted into a paper coated with adhesive, which is then
impregnated with the pheromone substance and laid out in the field. The
scent spreads with the wind and attracts male insects that become
entangled in the adhesive. The effectiveness of the control methods
depends on the number of moths caught in the glue traps.

In the fight against bollworms, the use of chemical insecticides
undoubtedly plays a central role. In the past, various inorganic
substances were used for this purpose until the 1940s, but their
effectiveness proved to be minimal. During the war years, the
development of insecticides such as DDT and organic hexachlorane
compounds led to their worldwide use. In Uzbekistan, these agents were
used extensively until the 1970s. After their ban, alternative agents
were introduced to protect agricultural crops, including Polydofen,
Fozalon, Phtalofos, Tsidial, Tsyanox, Kilval, Mezurol and others. During
this period, new insecticides with minimal risks to warm-blooded animals
and the environment were tested specifically for bollworm control
(www.biochem.uz).

The properties of insecticides used in crop protection against bollworms
are as follows:

1. Efficacy against insects and spider mites: insecticides are effective
against both insects and spider mites, making them versatile pest
control agents.

2. Low toxicity to beneficial insects: These insecticides have low
toxicity to beneficial insects, so there is minimal interference with
natural pest control mechanisms.

3. Short residence time in the environment: insecticides do not remain
in the external environment for extended periods, minimizing their
impact on non-target organisms and reducing the risk of accumulation.

4. Relative safety for humans and warm-blooded animals: the insecticides
are relatively safe for human and warm-blooded animal health, further
enhancing their suitability for crop protection.

During the study period, Sevin SL carbaryl, an insecticide with high
efficacy against bollworms and lower risks to the environment and human
health, was used extensively at a dosage of 2.5 kilograms per hectare.
However, it was later found that this insecticide has long-term effects
and can promote the reproduction of spider mites, so it is no longer
used. In recent years, the insecticide Lannate, which belongs to the
class of carbamates and is similar to Sevin SL carbaryl, has been tested
in Uzbekistan. It is formulated as a water-soluble powder packaged in
water-soluble sachets, providing a convenient application method. In the
late 1970s and early 1980s, synthetic pyrethroids became the primary
means of crop protection. Pyrethroids such as Ambush, Tsimbush,
Sumitsidine and Detsis showed high efficacy against bollworms and other
insects in preliminary trials. Residues in the plants were also
investigated, as was the determination of appropriate pre-harvest
waiting periods. Pyrethroids were then tested and recommended for
bollworm control in various crops. Unlike natural pyrethrins derived
from chamomile flowers, synthetic pyrethroids are chemically synthesized
stable compounds that have high efficacy, are more resistant to
sunlight, and have a rate of degradation compared to other insecticides.
Several generations of synthetic pyrethroids have been developed. The
first generation, including sumitcidin, ambush, tsimbush, and detsis,
has primarily insecticidal properties. Subsequent generation
pyrethroids, such as Tsibolt, Karate and Talstar, also have acaricidal
properties and can control both insects and spider mites. Newly
synthesized pyrethroids offer higher purity, lower consumption and
reduced environmental risks compared to their predecessors. Examples
include purified forms of sumicidin and Fastak (Alfagard), which contain
specific isomers for improved efficacy (www.agro.uz).

Pyrethroids have several beneficial properties, including high
biological efficacy, low consumption, minimal short-term environmental
impact, no crop damage, and potential productivity enhancement. They are
also relatively safe for beneficial insects, including bees, and adhere
to soil and foliage without significant wash-off. However, negative
properties include the potential for allergic reactions in humans and
acute effects on certain stages of beneficial insects, as well as
effects on aquatic animals.

Pyrethroids have shorter persistence in treated plants. Studies indicate
that the active ingredient dissipates in cotton plants treated with
various pyrethroids within 15-25 days, and no toxic residues are
detected in seeds and plant oil. Synthetic pyrethroids represent a
significant advance in the field of pesticides and offer high efficiency
and safety in crop protection. However, continued research and
development are needed to address the shortcomings of existing
insecticides. Several insecticides or insecticide-acaricide mixtures,
such as Nurell-D, Dadetsi, Deltafos, Endjeo, and Prempt, have been
developed to overcome these limitations. Consequently,
agro-toxicological evaluations are required for these new bollworm
control agents (www.agro.uz).

The development of resistance in arthropods to insecticides is a
drawback of chemical control methods. Resistance can arise from human
activities or naturally within pest populations. It occurs when
resistant genotypes in the pest population survive exposure to the
applied pesticide, due to genetic factors and selection pressure.
Resistance to various classes of insecticides has been observed
worldwide, with numerous arthropod species exhibiting varying degrees of
resistance. To combat resistance, researchers must explore the
underlying causes and develop strategies to mitigate its effects.
Resistance typically develops in heavily treated crops and in
multigenerational arthropods. Historical examples of resistance include
cases in Uzbekistan, where the efficacy of certain insecticides declined
against cotton bollworms in the 1960s and against head lice (Pediculus
humanus capitis) in the 1980s (www.biochem.uz).

In Uzbekistan, studies have focused on examining the resistance of
cotton plants to insecticides. Although chemical control of bollworms in
Uzbekistan was relatively lower than in neighboring Tajikistan and
Azerbaijan, a decline in the efficacy of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
(DDT), hexachlorocyclohexane, polychlorcamphene, and Dilor was observed
in the 1970s. In Tajikistan, bollworm resistance reached 97-fold by
1976. Therefore, the risk of resistance development in bollworm in
Uzbekistan, where pyrethroids were widely used, prompted us to
investigate. The presence of resistance in populations of white-winged
bollworm (possibly Earias insulana) served as the basis for
investigating the sensitivity of different bollworm populations to
commonly used insecticides. The cotton protection system in Uzbekistan
uses an integrated approach that aims to increase the efficiency of crop
protection while minimizing the use of pesticides. Unlike the previous
system, which aimed to eradicate pests, the current system strives to
maintain pest populations at levels that do not cause economic damage.

The integrated bollworm defense system was developed over several
decades. Initially, efforts focused on reducing treatment frequency by
establishing scientifically determined treatment periods. Over time, the
system has evolved to include economically feasible volume criteria for
evaluating the damage caused by bollworms. The previous criterion, which
identified 10-12 infested bolls per 100 bolls, is being reevaluated due
to changing economic circumstances, such as reductions in government
subsidies for pesticide prices. The current system is adapting to the
new economic dynamics, which requires a revision of the indicators of
the level of economic damage caused by pests (www.agro.uz).

\textbf{Case of Fergana Province}

\textbf{Natural Resources and Climatic Conditions}

Research conducted in the Fergana region focused on the study of
conditions and working methods related to bollworm control in the area.
The Fergana Valley is located in a lowland plain surrounded on three
sides by mountain ranges and has unique soil characteristics and a mild
continental climate. The region comprises three areas, with the Fergana
province occupying the southeastern part. In the northern part of the
Fergana province is the Toshlok district (Figure 6), which is
characterized by coastal cliffs that have significantly influenced the
formation of the soil layer. The soil composition on the slopes consists
of small and large stones, which leads to a low water storage capacity.
Therefore, the gardens and plants in this area require frequent
irrigation (up to 20 times).\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image6/image6}

\end{center}
\end{figure}

\textbf{Figure 6. Map of Fergana region, indicating the Toshlok
district} (Author prepared).

The Fergana Valley is known for its soils, which are ideal for growing a
variety of crops. In addition, the climatic conditions in this region
provide favourable circumstances characterised by sufficient warmth,
sunlight and humidity. The valley has a dry and continental climate that
falls predominantly into the cool arid category, although some less
protected areas have a cool semi-arid climate. In March, temperatures
rise to around 20 \selectlanguage{ngerman}°C or 68 °F and quickly reach 35 °C or 95 °F in June,
July and August. Rainfall is sparse in the following five months from
April, but its frequency gradually increases from October. December and
January see snowfall and frost, with temperatures dropping to -20 °C or
-4 °F. Analysis of climatic conditions showed an increase in
precipitation, especially in the spring months. This increased
precipitation had a positive impact on the availability of food and
nectar for insects that emerge early in the season. Consequently,
conditions in Toshlok district of Fergana region provide ample
opportunities for cotton and cereal crops. These favourable conditions
contribute significantly to the potential for increasing cotton
production (www.gov.uz).

The research was primarily conducted on farms in the Toshlok district
and in the laboratory. However, field research and observations were
also conducted in the Khojaabad district of the Andijan region (Figure
7), particularly the ``Surayyokhanum Orzusi'' farm. This was essential
to study the prevalence and susceptibility of bollworm populations in
different parts of Fergana Valley. In the Toshlok district, most of the
surveys were conducted in the fields of the ``Sohibjon MMM'' farm. This
farm serves as a model farm and has shown successful cotton production,
especially with the cotton variety ``Sultan''.\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{figure}[H]
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=0.70\columnwidth]{figures/image7/image7}

\end{center}
\end{figure}

\textbf{Figure 7. Map of Andijan region, indicating Khojaabad
district}(author prepared).

In this case, about 60-70\% of the 11-13 bolls on each plant were open
in the second ten days of September. Subsequently, 90-95\% of the crop
was harvested after the first and second cotton harvests. This allowed
the planting of a replacement crop, such as cereals, in October. Farms
in the district mainly use stony, gray alluvial soils with sandy texture
and little organic matter with humus content between 0.45\% and 0.7\%.
Therefore, the application of organic and cultural fertilizers is
crucial to improve soil fertility in these sandy soils.

\textbf{Method}

Several methods from different fields were used in the study, including
entomology, biology, morphology, ecology, and agro-toxicology. The
method used in the study was cotton tunnel census and control.
Biological control of cotton pests was carried out based on relevant
publications. Insecticide tests against cotton bollworms were conducted,
linking the effects of agrotechnical measures to cotton bollworm biology
and cotton agricultural techniques. Methodological guidelines were used
for testing pheromone traps and evaluating their effectiveness. An
original method developed in the laboratories of the Crop Protection
Institute was used to study the effects of insecticides on beneficial
insects such as Trichogramma, Bracon, and Haddock.

The method involved the following steps:

1. Spraying the insecticide on plants in small field plots.

2. After a certain time, the leaves are cut off and stored in jars under
laboratory conditions.

3. Evaluation of the effect of the agent after 24 hours.

4. Conduct these tests until the effect of the agent is no longer
present or decreases by 30\%.

The economic damage caused by bollworms was evaluated using the
criterion of the amount of new economic damage. The biological
efficiency of the insecticides was calculated using the generally
accepted formula (Klare et al., 1995):\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{longtable}[]{@{}l@{}}
\toprule
\emph{BS = (Av - Va) / Av x 100\%,} \emph{where:} \emph{BS - biological
efficiency,} \emph{A - the number of pests in the experimental variant
before the application of the insecticide, a - the number of pests in
the experimental variant on the following days after the application of
the insecticide,} \emph{V - the number of pests in the control variant
(without the insecticide) before the application of the insecticide, v -
the number of pests in the control variant on the following
days.}\tabularnewline
\bottomrule
\end{longtable}

The resulting data were statistically analyzed using various methods,
including the ''limit'' and scatter analysis methods. Specific
recommendations were used to determine the economic and business
efficiency of the methods and tools studied. These recommendations
provided a framework for evaluating the cost-effectiveness and
practicality of the approaches studied.

\textbf{Chemical and Agro-Toxicological Properties of Studied
Insecticides.}

In this section, we briefly review the chemical and agro-toxicological
properties of the insecticides studied. The insecticides studied include
Detsis, Cypermethrin, Karate, Talstar, Avaunt, Proclaim, Lannet,
Coragen, Teron Bio, and Nurell-D. These insecticides are widely used in
various regions, including Uzbekistan, due to their effectiveness in
controlling pests that attack crops and cause significant agricultural
damage.

Deltamethrin, the active ingredient in Detsis, is a first-generation
pyrethroid insecticide. It is highly effective against adult insects and
rodent larvae and exhibits potent activity with low consumption.
Deltamethrin is used worldwide and has gained popularity in Uzbekistan
due to its efficacy and low dosage. However, it is important to know
that deltamethrin is highly toxic to warm-blooded animals (Bhardwaj et
al., 2020; Dilshod et al., 2023).

Cypermethrin, contained in insecticides such as Tsimbush and Tsirax,
belongs to the first generation of synthetic pyrethroids. Since its
introduction in 1981, it has been widely used to protect technical and
vegetable crops, garden trees and pastures from various pests, except
spider mites. Cypermethrin acts on insects from the surface and from
within, without systemic effects. It is known for its moderate toxicity
in warm-blooded plants and can be used against various pests in
different crops and pastures.

Karate, which contains lambdacyhalothrin, belongs to the new generation
of pyrethroids. It exhibits high activity and efficiency even at low
concentrations. Karate is effective in controlling both insects and
spiders, which makes it valuable for pest control in various crops. The
highly toxic nature of lambdacyhalothrin should be considered during
application.

Talstar, with its active ingredient bifenthrin, is an insecticide and
acaricide developed by the American company FMS. Extensive testing has
shown positive results, particularly in protecting cotton against spider
mites, bollworms, aphids and thrips. Bifenthrin is highly toxic and
requires careful handling to avoid adverse effects on warm-blooded
animals.

Avaunt, which contains indoxacarb, belongs to a new class of chemical
compounds known as oxadiazines. Avaunt is highly effective against
butterfly caterpillars and poses minimal risk to non-target insects,
including beneficial insects. The insecticide's unique mode of action,
based on blocking sodium channels in the insects' nervous systems,
causes them to stop feeding and subsequently die.

Proclaim, an emamectin-based insecticide, belongs to the chemical class
of emamectins. Emamectin benzoate, the pure substance in Proclaim, has
low toxicity to warm-blooded animals and humans while being highly
effective against all stages of the cotton bollworm. It is particularly
beneficial in controlling large young worms in the field
(Nazirkulomovna, 2022).

Lannate, a carbamate insecticide with similar properties to the formerly
widely used Sevin, contains methomyl as the active ingredient. It is
slightly toxic and highly effective against adult insects and young
worms. The application rate of Lannate is usually between 1.5 and 2.0
l/ha (Nazirkulomovna, 2022).

Coragen, an insecticide developed by DuPont, contains
chlorantraniliprole as the active ingredient. This highly effective
insecticide is effective against worms and has unique properties. When
sprayed on plants, it is absorbed into leaf tissue and creates
insecticidal cells in the leaves. Thank you to its ovicidal and
larvicidal properties, Coragen is suitable for controlling insects that
migrate by forming pores between leaf tissues. It also has lower
toxicity to warm-blooded animals and non-target insects (Nazirkulomovna,
2022).

Teron Bio is derived from a plant that contains limonoids, a new group
of pesticides. Limonoids, including azadirachtin, have been shown to
disrupt certain hormonal processes in insects, preventing their
metamorphosis and causing them to die. Teron Bio is virtually harmless
to warm-blooded animals and humans (Nazirkulomovna, 2022).

In addition to the above single insecticides, mixed
insecticide-acaricides have been tested to increase their efficacy
against bollworms through synergistic effects. Organophosphorus
compounds such as chlorpyrifos, ``profenofos'', or ``hostation'' were
used as synergists in these mixtures (Nazirkulomovna, 2022).

Nurell-D, a mixture preparation, contains cypermethrin (5\%) and
chlorpyrifos (Dursban) (50\%). It has been widely produced and used
since 1987 for its high efficacy against difficult-to-control pests such
as tuber leaf fungi and spider mites. Nurell-D has moderate toxicity and
is registered for cotton protection against aphids, thrips, spider
mites, and bollworms (Nazirkulomovna, 2022).

Thus, the insecticides discussed comprise different chemical classes and
exhibit different agro-toxicological properties. Although they are
effective in controlling pests in different crops, it is important to
consider their potential toxicity to warm-blooded and nontarget
organisms when applying them. Proper selection and responsible use of
these insecticides can make an important contribution to integrated pest
management strategies and sustainable agricultural practices.

\textbf{Findings}

So, the case study provides an overview of various insecticides used in
pest control and crop protection. The insecticides discussed, including
Detsis, Cypermethrin, Karate, Talstar, Avaunt, Proclaim, Lannet,
Coragen, Teron Bio, and Nurell-D, have different chemical compositions
and agro-toxicological properties. Deltamethrin, as contained in Detsis,
is a potent pyrethroid insecticide widely used worldwide and in
Uzbekistan. Although it has potent efficacy against pests, it is highly
toxic to warm-blooded animals. Cypermethrin, found in insecticides such
as Tsimbush and Tsirax, is a first-generation synthetic pyrethroid known
for its broad protection against a variety of pests. It has moderate
toxicity to warm-blooded animals and can be used in various crops.
Karate, which contains lambdacyhalothrin, represents a new generation of
pyrethroids with high efficacy even at low doses. Talstar, with its
active ingredient bifenthrin, has shown positive results in protecting
cotton against certain pests. However, both Karate and Talstar require
careful handling due to their high toxicity.

Avaunt, Proclaim and Teron Bio introduce innovative classes of
insecticides. Avaunt's unique mode of action and selective action on
caterpillars make it suitable for integrated pest management systems.
Proclaim, which is based on emamectins, effectively controls bollworm
and has low toxicity to non-target insects. Teron Bio, derived from
plant-derived compounds, is a safe alternative for pest control that
poses no significant risks to warm-blooded animals. Lannate, Coragen and
Nurell-D offer effective solutions against pests while taking safety
considerations into account. Lannate, with the active ingredient
methomyl, has been shown to be effective against adult insects and young
worms. Coragen's unique mode of action and translaminar activity make it
suitable for controlling pests that migrate between leaf tissues.
Nurell-D, a mixed preparation of cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos,
effectively targets difficult pests and requires cautious use due to its
moderate toxicity. Overall, the insecticides presented provide a range
of options for agricultural pest control. Their selection and use should
be based on careful consideration of their agro-toxicological
properties, efficacy, and potential impact on non-target organisms.
Implementing integrated pest management strategies and using pesticides
responsibly can help ensure sustainable agricultural practices while
effectively controlling pests and minimizing risks to the environment
and human health.

\textbf{Discussion}

This study examined current trends, challenges, appropriate theoretical
approaches, and struggles related to insecticide use in pest management,
with a particular focus on incorporating ecofeminist concerns. By
examining the current state of affairs and considering the broader
context, this section illuminates the complexities and potential
opportunities for improvement in this area. A major trend in the pest
management world is the continued development and introduction of new
generations of insecticides. The case study highlights the transition
from first-generation pyrethroids, such as deltamethrin and
cypermethrin, to newer classes, such as lambdacyhalothrin and bifenthrin
(see also, Nazirkulomovna, 2022). These advances bring higher efficacy,
lower use rates, and an improved safety profile, which is a positive
development. However, it is important to recognize and address the
potential toxicity of these insecticides to non-target organisms and the
environment. This concern is consistent with ecofeminist perspectives
that emphasize the interconnectedness of gender, nature, and social
justice. Responsible use of pesticides and application of integrated
pest management strategies (IPM) are important steps to minimize
negative impacts on ecosystems and marginalized communities. Resistance
in target pests continues to be a major challenge in practice. Continued
exposure to certain insecticides can lead to the development of
resistance, rendering certain active ingredients ineffective over time.
Proactive resistance management strategies are needed, including
rotation of insecticides with different mechanisms of action and
implementation of monitoring programs for early detection of resistance.
Consistent with ecofeminist concerns, these strategies emphasize the
need for sustainable and socially just approaches to pest management
that consider the well-being of ecosystems and marginalized communities.

It is also important to consider the impact of insecticides on
beneficial insects such as pollinators and natural pest controllers.
Maintaining a healthy and balanced ecosystem is critical to sustainable
agriculture. Ecofeminist perspectives advocate for strategies that
selectively target pests while minimizing harm to beneficial insects,
with a focus on biodiversity and long-term ecological stability. The
case study mentions insecticide use in Uzbekistan, where cotton is an
important crop, demonstrating the importance of region-specific
considerations. Understanding the unique pest profiles, climatic
conditions, and regulatory frameworks in specific areas is critical to
developing tailored and effective pest management strategies. This
approach is consistent with ecofeminist considerations that emphasize
the importance of local context and cultural factors in pest management
decisions. To address the challenges discussed and improve the
sustainability of pest management practices, collaboration and knowledge
sharing among researchers, farmers, policy makers, and industry
stakeholders are essential. Ecofeminist perspectives call for inclusive
decision-making processes that empower local communities, including
women, to shape pest management strategies. Investments in research and
development of environmentally friendly alternatives, such as biological
control agents and integrated approaches, can pave the way for more
sustainable pest management systems. Sound risk assessment protocols and
regulatory frameworks should be in place to ensure safe insecticide use
and protect human health and the environment. By adopting sustainable
practices, promoting collaboration, and addressing ecofeminist concerns,
stakeholders can work toward effective pest management while minimizing
potential risks and ensuring the long-term sustainability of
agricultural systems. This integrated approach reflects a comprehensive
understanding of the social, environmental, and gender dimensions of
bollworm control and contributes to a more equitable and ecologically
conscious agricultural landscape.

\textbf{Conclusion}

So, the bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera Hb.) remains a formidable threat
to cotton crops worldwide, including those in the Fergana Valley of
Uzbekistan. Extensive research has been conducted to understand and
control this destructive insect, but there is an urgent need for
continuous improvement of the overall control system. Factors such as
declining net sensitivity and increasing reliance on insecticides have
necessitated research into alternative approaches. The adoption of
integrated pest management (IPM) is a promising and globally recognized
strategy to address the challenges posed by cotton bollworm. Moving from
the current general protection system to an integrated approach can
reduce overuse of chemical inputs while achieving greater overall
efficiency. IPM integrates a range of pest management methods that
include biological, cultural, and chemical approaches in a holistic and
sustainable manner. This comprehensive framework not only reduces
bollworm infestations, but also protects the ecosystem balance by
considering impacts on non-target organisms and conserving beneficial
insects. In the diverse agricultural landscape of the Fergana Valley,
bollworm exhibits a multigenerational life cycle, infesting a variety of
crops including tomatoes, corn, peanuts, peas, and wheat. The
overwintering phase of the larvae or pupae exposes cotton plants to
significant damage in their later stages of development. Although
natural bollworm populations exist, their density alone is often
insufficient to achieve an economically viable level of control.
Therefore, the use of artificial biological control methods and the
targeted use of insecticides is essential, especially during periods of
high bollworm density.

Looking to the future, it is important to adopt globally recognized
approaches and trends in pest control. Integrated pest management, with
its emphasis on sustainability and environmentally friendly practices,
should be widely disseminated and adopted. Collaborative efforts among
researchers, farmers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders are
essential for sharing knowledge and developing innovative solutions.
Continued refinement of control systems, application of integrated
approaches, and incorporation of globally accepted practices can
mitigate the harmful effects of bollworms and ensure the long-term
sustainability of cotton production while minimizing environmental
risks. Considering these findings, it is recommended that further
research be conducted to explore advanced techniques and technologies
that can complement bollworm control measures. This includes research
into novel biological control agents, the development of resistant
cotton varieties, and the implementation of advanced surveillance
systems for early detection of bollworm populations. In addition,
educational programs should be established to increase grower awareness
of the benefits and proper implementation of integrated pest management.
By combining scientific advances, global best practices, and active
stakeholder participation, we can strengthen our defenses against
bollworms and ensure agricultural productivity for current and future
generations.

\textbf{Declarations}

\textbf{Ethics approval and consent to participate.}

This study did not involve human participants, and therefore, ethics
approval and consent were not required.

\textbf{Consent for publication}

All authors have given their consent for the publication of this
research article.

\textbf{Availability of data and materials}

There are no additional data or materials associated with this study as
it is based on a comprehensive literature review and field observations.

\textbf{Competing interests}

The authors declare no competing interests.

\textbf{Funding}

This research received no specific funding.

\textbf{Authors' contributions}

All authors contributed equally to the conception, design, data
analysis, and writing of the manuscript.

\textbf{Acknowledgments}

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the journal editors
and reviewers for their valuable feedback and contributions to the
improvement of this manuscript. Their insightful comments have greatly
enhanced the quality of our research.

\textbf{Authors' information}

The first author, Mrs. Shokirova Gavharhon has expertise in social
sciences, biology, chemistry, and agriculture.

The second author, Mr. Juraev Zuhriddin, has expertise in social
sciences, geography, environmentalism, agriculture, and economics.

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