Relative importance of environmental covariates
The availability of suitable nesting sites and trophic nutrients
determines distribution and abundance patterns, notably for raptors .
Temperature can directly affect animal growth and reproduction, as well
as indirectly by affecting the food chain, which can have an impact on
animal survival. Extreme precipitation generally poses a threat to bird
survival . The description of raptor species declines in response to
periods of extremely low or high precipitation, as shown by the curves
of precipitation in the wettest quarter (bio18), precipitation in the
driest month (bio14), and precipitation in the coldest quarter (bio19),
supports the conclusions of our studies
The ensemble model’s relative contributions from each environmental
covariate are consistent with our theoretical understanding of each
species’ biology. The limiting factors of precipitation and temperature
have a significant impact on the distribution of all five species. The
fact that bio18 (Precipitation of the warmest quarter) has such a strong
impact on all species (Fig. 3) may indicate that these species prefer
habitats with the right amount of precipitation and temperature.
Compared to the rest of the other species, the Steppe Eagle and the
Secretarybird appreciated the inclusion of NDVI (Table 1). This might
lend credence to the idea that these two birds prefer environments with
some kind of woody vegetation. In Africa, Steppe eagles typically
inhabit savannas and grasslands, with occasional use of dry woodlands.
The Secretarybird migrates in response to rainfall and the increase in
prey. It favors open grasslands, savannas, and shrubland over forests
and dense shrubbery, which could obstruct its fleeting existence.
For all species, the effect of the human influence index was
surprisingly low. Our results are in line with those of , and show that
human influence did not have a significant impact on the distribution of
suitable habitat for the five species. Raptor interactions, such as
potential prey competition, have the potential to influence the
distribution of suitable habitats . Given that precipitation and
temperature were the most significant predictors for all five species,
the ramifications of changing climate is likely to have a significant
impact on how raptors are distributed and may cause their ranges to
contract .
The predicted spatial distributions of the five species of raptors
differed in size. These differences might be primarily brought on by
variations in the predicted distributions’ environmental ranges. The
Martial eagle, for instance, had a much wider coverage range than the
Southern ground hornbill. Species with wider geographic ranges are more
resilient to climate change . Due to the lack of protection in raptor
priority areas, conservation efforts should be functional outside of the
current conservation areas. It is likely that extensive conservation and
governmental measures will be needed to preserve raptors and the
ecosystem services they provide. Legislation may be passed, for
instance, to control the distribution and utilization of veterinary
drugs, which are reducing the number of vultures in Africa .
Additionally, thorough environmental impact assessments (EIAs) should be
carried out before developing energy infrastructure in order to
recognize and eliminate risks to raptors especially vultures . Our
biodiversity will continue to face serious threats and challenges,
particularly in Kenya’s key biodiversity areas (KBAs) as they are put
under increasing pressure by an increase in infrastructure developments
like roads, power and wind energy, pipelines, land use changes, and
illegal activities like logging . Furthermore, it will be crucial to
work with stakeholders to recognize and address regional problems like
conflict between people and wildlife, which may be a factor in the
decline of raptors.
A more complete study of the spatial distributions of threats will be a
crucial next step in improving raptor conservation in Kenya. Raptors in
Sudan, for instance, have been shown to be electrocuted by power lines
and similarly alarming levels of electrocution have been recorded in
Kenya . Flying birds like raptors and other species can be severely
harmed by high voltage transmission lines, even though increasing
renewable energy is generally a desirable plan of action for Kenya’s
global environmental sustainability and development for a host of
reasons .