Figure 9. Vertical tropospheric profiles over St. Louis at
~18:30 to 19:30 UTC for selected test cases 21 August
2013 and 30 August 2013. Labels P1 to P6 correspond to plume information
in Table 3. Ozone measured from the ozonesonde in ppb are shown as a
black line. Panel (a) and (d), the green line RH %. Panel (b) and (e),
the blue line represents the GEOS-5 modeled Potential Vorticity
106 PVU. Panel (c) and (f), the FLEXPART-WRF modeled
CO biomass burning g cm-3, for each simulation the
PYRO simulation is red, and BASELINE simulation in gray. Refer to Figure
2 for corresponding ozonesonde curtain plots.
Three ozone enhanced layers are visible on 21 August (Table 3, Figure
9). None of these enhancements are deemed of stratospheric origins, as
there was no significant PVU present in these layers. Plume P3 at 11 km
was initially considered to be a stratospheric intrusion related but are
ruled out as the NARR data and sonde thermal tropopause indicate that
the tropopause was lowered (15 km to ~9 km) possibly by
wave breaking from the cut-off low. The lower- and upper-middle
tropospheric ozone enhancements at P1 (2 to 5.5 km) and P2 (7 to 9 km),
respectively, are determined to be of biomass burning origin. The
lower-tropospheric plume P1 was determined to be from the Idaho Beaver
Creek plume ~6 days earlier. The upper-middle
tropospheric plume P2 originated 2 days prior from high-altitude
injection plumes from the Yellowstone National Park Emigrant cluster
fires. The contribution of 21 August tropospheric ozone layers from
biomass burning was 10 to 25 ppbv. The pyroCb from the Idaho Pony Elk
Fire (16 Aug at 23:41 UTC) reached the St. Louis area; But, the polluted
air remained in the lower stratospheric air and did not mix with the
lower layers. The incorporation of the high-altitude injection plumes
allowed for the two middle- and upper- tropospheric polluted plumes to
be characterized which contributed ~15 to 30% to layers
in the total ozone column. This upper level pollution was later advected
down to the surface and contributed to the exceedance on the 23 August.
4.5.2. 25-30 August 2013: Evidence of stratospheric air mixing with aged
biomass burning during anticyclonic flow
The meteorological map provided in Figure 6d-f indicates aged biomass
burning transported into a stratospheric intrusion by a high pressure
system that became well-established over Missouri 25 August 00:00 UTC.
The high pressure system began developing a week prior over the
southcentral U.S. The high remained quasi-permanent as it sat over
Missouri reaching its maximum strength on 26 August 06:00 UTC until a
mid-level (500 hPa) shortwave trough moved into the area on 29 August
12:00 UTC moving the system eastward. The near surface reflection of the
shortwave reaches Eastern North Dakota 29 August 18:00 UTC as the trough
extends south to Oklahoma where it penetrates deeper into the ridge.
Figure 7b and 7d presents a cross section and plane view of the
resulting high. Due to the high pressure system the trajectory analysis
indicated that smoke flowed from various fire locations in additional to
stratospheric intrusion impacts to the St. Louis area (see Figure 8).
Figure 9d-f depicts the vertical ozone and meteorological profiles
representative of this time period (30 August). Further evidence of this
trough effects on elevated ozone aloft in the sonde measurements (see
Figure 2) remained until 30 August 18:00 UTC (Figure 9d-f). Thereafter a
shortwave passes the area slightly to the east and cleared out the
excess ozone.
Three ozone enhanced layers are present during the high pressure event
as evident on 30 August (Table 3, P4 to P6). Stratospheric air descended
into the middle troposphere ~500 hPa on two occasions
during this time period (28 Aug and 30 Aug) from shortwaves (Figure 7d).
Stratospheric impacts are indicated at ~7 to 9 km and
>12 km layers with high PVU values and low RH values
(Figure 9d-f, P5 and P6). NARR PVU analysis provided further proof that
these are in fact stratospheric in origin. Figure 7d depicts lowering
dry stratospheric air and ascending moist tropospheric air. The near
surface plume (0 to 3.5 km) was traced back to southeastern agricultural
fires ~5 days prior (see Figure 8), indicating a likely
recirculation of air by the high pressure system. The
middle-tropospheric plume P5 was determined to be from an unknown
source, potentially a recirculation of summertime ozone precursors
(Cooper et al., 2006, 2007). Evidence of this layer is present in
previous soundings for the week 25-29 August where all sondes show a
single well-defined plume at ∼5 to 9 km. The GEOS-5 and NARR potential
vorticity also give no indication of what the cause for this layer is.
Our hypothesis is supported by the vertical wind profiles for the week
being relatively stagnant— the ozonesonde launched that day landed
within 50 m of the launch site — signifying air circulation over St.
Louis for the entire week increasing photochemical effects. An
alternative theory is that wind shear caused the layer and it’s a part
of the larger plume above. The layer between the unknown plume and above
(~6 to 8 km) is a layer of moist and clean air (see
Figure 7d). The upper-tropospheric layer plume P6 is a combination of
both a biomass burning plume and a stratospheric intrusion air mass. The
lower half of the plume P6 (8 to 10 km) is dominated by stratospheric
air, while the above portion of P6 (10 to 12 km) is primarily biomass
burning. There is another layer of clean air above prior to reaching the
tropopause. The upper-tropospheric plume P6 originated 5 days prior from
high-altitude injection plumes from the California Rim Fire (25 August).
The contribution of 30 August tropospheric ozone layers from Biomass
burning was 10 to 80 ppbv and stratospheric air masses contributed 10 to
40 ppbv. The incorporation of high-altitude smoke injection allowed for
the two mid- and upper- tropospheric polluted plumes to be characterized
which contributed ~15 to 60% to layers in the total
ozone column.
5 Summary and Conclusions
By incorporating balloon-borne ozonesonde observations with models, this
study has quantitatively examined sources for tropospheric ozone
enhancements due to Non-Controllable Ozone Sources (NCOS). In
particular, the pollution impacts from stratospheric intrusions and
biomass burning contributions to background tropospheric and surface
ozone levels in the Midwest United States were characterized.
Additionally, emphasis is placed on partitioning the contribution from
western U.S. fires, central U.S. fires, and other areas to St. Louis
background ozone. A chemical transport model and trajectory model were
run to quantify source contribution to ozone in St. Louis, Missouri. For
the region and time period of this study, 10 to 15% of the ozone
enhancements stems from a stratospheric airmass contribution and 15 to
30% from biomass burning. These NCOS contributions and ozonesonde
profiles can be considered as baseline ranges for the Midwest U.S. area
if direct ozone measurements (sondes, airplane, ground-based) are not
available. Considering U.S. fires only, 70% of the biomass burning
plumes originated from the western parts of the U.S. and only 3% came
from the local central U.S. emissions. Moreover, it was demonstrated
that a redistribution of the biomass burning emissions injection height,
with part of the emissions above the boundary layer led to a reduction
of model predicted surface ozone.
In agreement with earlier studies (e.g., Fishman et al., 2014), this
study has identified a generally increasing relationship between
background ozone and transported pollution. We followed the definition
of background ozone described in Jaffe et al. (2018) as NCOS such as
lingering biomass burning and long-range transported international
sources. The major contributions below 3 km were from the central U.S.
fires. While 80 to 90% of the high-altitude injection smoke (above 3.5
km) originated in the western U.S. During this campaign period only 5 to
10% of the biomass burning emissions reaching St. Louis originated from
the southeast and other regions.
This study identified that biomass burning plumes in the western U.S.
can have impacts on the daily atmospheric ozone column in the Midwest
(10 to 80 ppbv of ozone) at a greater frequency and intensity than
stratospheric intrusion (10 to 25 ppbv of ozone). We show the background
ozone to be 55 ppbv, which was near the 30 to 50 ppbv range mentioned in
Jaffe et al. (2018) which is typical for the U.S. We identified a
relationship between smoke plume age and ozone enhancement where the
high-altitude injection smoke plumes above 3.5 km generally were
associated with higher amounts of CO concentrations but fresher smoke
regarding ozone levels. In addition, we recognized that the
high-altitude smoke had a higher tendency to mix with stratospheric
intrusions, which together doubled the ozone enhancement in the
tropospheric column.
An investigation of several individual smoke plumes has shown the
importance of incorporating high-altitude smoke injection in model
simulations in addition to ensuring that accurate biomass burning
locations and temporal allocation of intensity are included in model
emissions. Up to 60% of the smoke plume lies above 3.5 km, and this
needs to be simulated as it can later be mixed down to the surface and
lead to ozone exceedances days later. In addition, it was shown that the
incorporation of satellite-based detections of high-altitude smoke
injection (e.g., pyroCb activity, Peterson et al., 2014, 2017a,b) can be
helpful for improve modeling results and explain ozone enhancements
aloft and at the surface.
The individual cases were selected because they are associated with
common meteorological situations in the Midwest leading to ozone
exceedances. Evidence from the first case where biomass burning is
advected by a cutoff low is an example of a common flow pattern that
transports air masses from the west. Summertime occurrences of this
synoptic situation in conjunction with large wildfires in the western
U.S. can lead to increases in ozone in the Midwest of 10 to 80 ppbv or
greater. In the second case a stratospheric air mass was shown to mix
with an aged wildfire plume during anticyclonic flow, a pattern that was
previously found to occur 40% of the time for the southcentral U.S.
(Texas and the Gulf of Mexico area, Brioude et al., 2007). Additionally,
the test cases showed that the surface impacts were connected to
mechanisms causing air parcels to move downward (e.g. shortwave on 30
August). Likewise, strong vertical motion was evident in bringing
simulated air within the boundary to the middle and upper portions of
the troposphere.
While the results in this study highlight that Non-Controllable Ozone
Sources can contribute significantly to local tropospheric ozone in the
Midwest, future studies must combine satellite data and model
integration techniques with meteorological information for a longer time
period, both within and outside the Midwest to better characterize NCOS
contribution to U.S. ozone. Good examples of how an air quality model
could be used to assess NCOS has been shown in Baker et al. (2016,
2018). More specifically, Baker et al. (2016, 2018) address the question
of regional-scale pyrogenic ozone sources. In particular, Baker et al.
(2018) investigated the Rim Fire, using non-sonde data, which occurred
during our study period with a photochemical model and their findings
were similar to ours. Furthermore, as shown by individual plume cases
and several earlier studies (e.g. Morris et al., 2006; Brioude et al.,
2007; Jaffe, 2011; Lin et al., 2012; Hess and Zbinden, 2013),
high-altitude smoke injection from a fire can lead to long distance
transport depending on weather conditions and hence impact surface ozone
and NAAQS attainment. Plume rise and plume injection heights are a key
source of uncertainty (Paugam et al., 2016), which can be reduced
considerably using plume height information from remote sensing tools
(e.g. Peterson et al., 2017a,b; Val Martin et al., 2018). Improved
modeling techniques will be required to better characterize biomass
burning transport and hence better simulate long range impacts and the
possibility of unhealthy surface concentrations far from the biomass
burning sources.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the SEAC4RS and
SEACIONS team members who gave input and guidance. A special thanks to
Saint Louis University student participants in ozonesonde launches, Tim
Barbeau, William Iwasko, Jackie Ringhausen, Patrick Walsh, and Jason
Welsh. We also like to thank our Valparaiso University ozonesonde launch
trainers Alex Kotsakis and Mark Spychala. We would also like to thank
Dr. Jacky Rosati-Rowe at the U.S. EPA for editorial contributions. The
data sets used in this work are publicly accessible and archived at
https://tropo.gsfc.nasa.gov/seacions/ (ozonesonde data and
trajectories) and
https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/seac4rs/index.html (mission
data e.g., fire emissions and flight information). This work was
supported in part from NASA Grant NNX11AJ63G to Saint Louis University
through its AQAST Program. D. Peterson was supported by the NASA New
Investigator Program 80HQTR18T0073.
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