References

1. Weidinger S, Novak N. Atopic dermatitis. Lancet. 2016;387(10023):1109-22.
2. Drucker AM, Wang AR, Li WQ, Sevetson E, Block JK, Qureshi AA. The burden of atopic dermatitis: Summary of a report for the National Eczema Association. J Invest Dermatol. 2017;137(1):26-30.
3. Chamlin SL, Chren MM. Quality-of-life outcomes and measurement in childhood atopic dermatitis. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2010;30(3):281-8.
4. Zuberbier T, Orlow SJ, Paller AS, Taieb A, Allen R, Hernanz-Hermosa JM, et al. Patient perspectives on the management of atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006;118(1):226-32.
5. Kapur S, Watson W, Carr S. Atopic dermatitis. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol. 2018;14(Suppl 2):52.
6. David Boothe W, Tarbox JA, Tarbox MB. Atopic dermatitis: Pathophysiology. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2017;1027:21-37.
7. Lyons JJ, Milner JD, Stone KD. Atopic dermatitis in children: clinical features, pathophysiology, and treatment. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am. 2015;35(1):161-83.
8. Yang G, Seok JK, Kang HC, Cho YY, Lee HS, Lee JY. Skin Barrier Abnormalities and Immune Dysfunction in Atopic Dermatitis. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(8).
9. Kowalska-Oledzka E, Czarnecka M, Baran A. Epidemiology of atopic dermatitis in Europe. J Drug Assess. 2019;8(1):126-8.
10. Kamer B, Pasowska R, Dolka E, Blomberg A, Rotsztejn H. Prevalence of atopic dermatitis in infants during the first six months of life: authors’ observations. Postepy Dermatol Alergol. 2013;30(5):277-81.
11. Thomsen SF. Atopic dermatitis: natural history, diagnosis, and treatment. ISRN Allergy. 2014;2014:354250.
12. Wan J, Mitra N, Hoffstad OJ, Gelfand JM, Yan AC, Margolis DJ. Variations in risk of asthma and seasonal allergies between early- and late-onset pediatric atopic dermatitis: A cohort study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2017;77(4):634-40.
13. Kim JP, Chao LX, Simpson EL, Silverberg JI. Persistence of atopic dermatitis (AD): A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2016;75(4):681-7 e11.
14. Wollenberg A, Barbarot S, Bieber T, Christen-Zaech S, Deleuran M, Fink-Wagner A, et al. Consensus-based European guidelines for treatment of atopic eczema (atopic dermatitis) in adults and children: part II. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2018;32(6):850-78.
15. Coureau B, Bussières JF, Tremblay S. Cushing’s syndrome induced by misuse of moderate- to high-potency topical corticosteroids. Ann Pharmacother. 2008;42(12):1903-7.
16. Stalder JF, Aubert H, Anthoine E, Futamura M, Marcoux D, Morren MA, et al. Topical corticosteroid phobia in atopic dermatitis: International feasibility study of the TOPICOP score. Allergy. 2017;72(11):1713-9.
17. ELIDEL®(pimecrolimus) Cream, 1% for topical use; Highlights of prescribing information, 2014. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/021302s018lbl.pdf. Accessed 23 June 2020.
18. European Medicines Agency. ELIDEL®: Summary of product characteristics, 2006. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/referral/elidel-article-31-referral-annex-i-ii-iii_en.pdf. Accessed 23 June 2020.
19. PROTOPIC®(tacrolimus) ointment 0.03%, ointment 0.1%; Prescribing information, 2011. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2011/050777s018lbl.pdf. Accessed 23 June 2020.
20. PROTOPIC®(tacrolimus) ointment 0.03%; Summary of Product Characteristics, 2006. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/product-information/protopic-epar-product-information_en.pdf. Accessed 23 June 2020.
21. Grassberger M, Steinhoff M, Schneider D, Luger TA. Pimecrolimus – an anti-inflammatory drug targeting the skin. Exp Dermatol. 2004;13(12):721-30.
22. Jensen JM, Pfeiffer S, Witt M, Brautigam M, Neumann C, Weichenthal M, et al. Different effects of pimecrolimus and betamethasone on the skin barrier in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;124(3 Suppl 2):R19-28.
23. Luger T, Boguniewicz M, Carr W, Cork M, Deleuran M, Eichenfield L, et al. Pimecrolimus in atopic dermatitis: consensus on safety and the need to allow use in infants. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2015;26(4):306-15.
24. Davidson WF, Leung DYM, Beck LA, Berin CM, Boguniewicz M, Busse WW, et al. Report from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases workshop on ”Atopic dermatitis and the atopic march: Mechanisms and interventions”. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2019;143(3):894-913.
25. Bergmann RL, Edenharter G, Bergmann KE, Forster J, Bauer CP, Wahn V, et al. Atopic dermatitis in early infancy predicts allergic airway disease at 5 years. Clin Exp Allergy. 1998;28(8):965-70.
26. Gough H, Grabenhenrich L, Reich A, Eckers N, Nitsche O, Schramm D, et al. Allergic multimorbidity of asthma, rhinitis and eczema over 20 years in the German birth cohort MAS. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2015;26(5):431-7.
27. Flohr C, Perkin M, Logan K, Marrs T, Radulovic S, Campbell LE, et al. Atopic dermatitis and disease severity are the main risk factors for food sensitization in exclusively breastfed infants. J Invest Dermatol. 2014;134(2):345-50.
28. Brough HA, Liu AH, Sicherer S, Makinson K, Douiri A, Brown SJ, et al. Atopic dermatitis increases the effect of exposure to peanut antigen in dust on peanut sensitization and likely peanut allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;135(1):164-70.
29. Hill DA, Grundmeier RW, Ram G, Spergel JM. The epidemiologic characteristics of healthcare provider-diagnosed eczema, asthma, allergic rhinitis, and food allergy in children: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Pediatr. 2016;16:133.
30. Schneider L, Hanifin J, Boguniewicz M, Eichenfield LF, Spergel JM, Dakovic R, et al. Study of the Atopic March: Development of Atopic Comorbidities. Pediatr Dermatol. 2016;33(4):388-98.
31. Brough HA, Simpson A, Makinson K, Hankinson J, Brown S, Douiri A, et al. Peanut allergy: effect of environmental peanut exposure in children with filaggrin loss-of-function mutations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;134(4):867-75 e1.
32. Newell L, Polak ME, Perera J, Owen C, Boyd P, Pickard C, et al. Sensitization via healthy skin programs Th2 responses in individuals with atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol. 2013;133(10):2372-80.
33. Spergel JM, Boguniewicz M, Schneider L, Hanifin JM, Paller AS, Eichenfield LF. Food Allergy in Infants With Atopic Dermatitis: Limitations of Food-Specific IgE Measurements. Pediatrics. 2015;136(6):e1530-8.
34. Roduit C, Frei R, Depner M, Karvonen AM, Renz H, Braun-Fahrländer C, et al. Phenotypes of atopic dermatitis depending on the timing of onset and progression in childhood. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(7):655-662.
35. Chalmers JR, Haines RH, Bradshaw LE, Montgomery AA, Thomas KS, Brown SJ, et al. Daily emollient during infancy for prevention of eczema: the BEEP randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2020;395(10228):962-72.
36. Grabenhenrich LB, Keil T, Reich A, Gough H, Beschorner J, Hoffmann U, et al. Prediction and prevention of allergic rhinitis: A birth cohort study of 20 years. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;136(4):932-40 e12.
37. Barnes KC. Genes and atopic phenotypes. In Allergy, Immunity and Tolerance in Early Childhood: The First Steps of the Atopic March (pp. 113-131). Elsevier Inc.
38. Brunner PM, Silverberg JI, Guttman-Yassky E, Paller AS, Kabashima K, Amagai M, et al. Increasing comorbidities suggest that atopic dermatitis is a systemic disorder. J Invest Dermatol. 2017;137(1):18-25.
39. Ronnstad ATM, Halling-Overgaard AS, Hamann CR, et al. Association of atopic dermatitis with depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation in children and adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2018;79:448-56.e30.
40. Patel KR, Immaneni S, Singam V, et al. Association between atopic dermatitis, depression, and suicidal ideation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2019;80:402-10.
41. Ali F, Vyas J, Finlay AY. Counting the burden: Atopic dermatitis and health-related quality of life. Acta Derm Venereol. 2020;100:adv00161.
42. Chamlin SL, Frieden IJ, Williams ML, Chren MM. Effects of atopic dermatitis on young American children and their families. Pediatrics. 2004;114(3):607-11.
43. Zink A, Arents B, Fink-Wagner A, et al. Out-of-pocket costs for individuals with atopic eczema: a crosssectional study in nine European countries. Acta Derm Venereol. 2019;99:263–7.
44. Chung J, Simpson EL. The socioeconomics of atopic dermatitis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2019;122(4):360-6.
45. Theodosiou G, Montgomery S, Metsini A, et al. Burden of atopic dermatitis in Swedish adults: a population-based study. Acta Derm Venereol. 2019;99:964-70.
46. Kaufmann R, Folster-Holst R, Hoger P, Thaci D, Loffler H, Staab D, et al. Onset of action of pimecrolimus cream 1% in the treatment of atopic eczema in infants. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004;114(5):1183-8.
47. Kapp A, Papp K, Bingham A, Folster-Holst R, Ortonne JP, Potter PC, et al. Long-term management of atopic dermatitis in infants with topical pimecrolimus, a nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drug. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;110(2):277-84.
48. Papp KA, Werfel T, Folster-Holst R, Ortonne JP, Potter PC, de Prost Y, et al. Long-term control of atopic dermatitis with pimecrolimus cream 1% in infants and young children: a two-year study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005;52(2):240-6.
49. Papp K, Staab D, Harper J, Potter P, Puig L, Ortonne JP, et al. Effect of pimecrolimus cream 1% on the long-term course of pediatric atopic dermatitis. Int J Dermatol. 2004;43(12):978-83.
50. Ho VC, Gupta A, Kaufmann R, Todd G, Vanaclocha F, Takaoka R, et al. Safety and efficacy of nonsteroid pimecrolimus cream 1% in the treatment of atopic dermatitis in infants. J Pediatr. 2003;142(2):155-62.
51. Staab D, Kaufmann R, Brautigam M, Wahn U, Group CAC-S. Treatment of infants with atopic eczema with pimecrolimus cream 1% improves parents’ quality of life: a multicenter, randomized trial. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2005;16(6):527-33.
52. McKenna SP, Whalley D, de Prost Y, Staab D, Huels J, Paul CF, et al. Treatment of paediatric atopic dermatitis with pimecrolimus (Elidel, SDZ ASM 981): impact on quality of life and health-related quality of life. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2006;20(3):248-54.
53. Forte WC, Sumita JM, Rodrigues AG, Liuson D, Tanaka E. Rebound phenomenon to systemic corticosteroid in atopic dermatitis. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr). 2005;33(6):307-11.
54. Kempers S, Boguniewicz M, Carter E, Jarratt M, Pariser D, Stewart D, et al. A randomized investigator-blinded study comparing pimecrolimus cream 1% with tacrolimus ointment 0.03% in the treatment of pediatric patients with moderate atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004;51(4):515-25.
55. Paller AS, Lebwohl M, Fleischer AB, Jr., Antaya R, Langley RG, Kirsner RS, et al. Tacrolimus ointment is more effective than pimecrolimus cream with a similar safety profile in the treatment of atopic dermatitis: results from 3 randomized, comparative studies. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005;52(5):810-22.
56. Huang X, Xu B. Efficacy and Safety of Tacrolimus versus Pimecrolimus for the Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis in Children: A Network Meta-Analysis. Dermatology. 2015;231(1):41-9.
57. Mandelin JM, Rubins A, Remitz A, Cirule K, Dickinson J, Ho V, et al. Long-term efficacy and tolerability of tacrolimus 0.03% ointment in infants:* a two-year open-label study. Int J Dermatol. 2012;51(1):104-10.
58. Sigurgeirsson B, Boznanski A, Todd G, Vertruyen A, Schuttelaar ML, Zhu X, et al. Safety and efficacy of pimecrolimus in atopic dermatitis: a 5-year randomized trial. Pediatrics. 2015;135(4):597-606.
59. Gschwind HP, Waldmeier F, Zollinger M, Schweitzer A, Grassberger M. Pimecrolimus: skin disposition after topical administration in minipigs in vivo and in human skin in vitro. Eur J Pharm Sci. 2008;33(1):9-19.
60. Billich A, Aschauer H, Aszodi A, Stuetz A. Percutaneous absorption of drugs used in atopic eczema: pimecrolimus permeates less through skin than corticosteroids and tacrolimus. Int J Pharm. 2004;269(1):29-35.
61. Harper J, Green A, Scott G, Gruendl E, Dorobek B, Cardno M, et al. First experience of topical SDZ ASM 981 in children with atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol. 2001;144(4):781-7.
62. Allen BR, Lakhanpaul M, Morris A, Lateo S, Davies T, Scott G, et al. Systemic exposure, tolerability, and efficacy of pimecrolimus cream 1% in atopic dermatitis patients. Arch Dis Child. 2003;88(11):969-73.
63. Lakhanpaul M, Davies T, Allen BR, Schneider D. Low systemic exposure in infants with atopic dermatitis in a 1-year pharmacokinetic study with pimecrolimus cream 1%*. Exp Dermatol. 2006;15(2):138-41.
64. Eichenfield LF, Ho V, Matsunaga J, Leclerc P, Paul C, Hanifin JM. Blood concentrations, tolerability and efficacy of pimecrolimus cream 1% in Japanese infants and children with atopic dermatitis. J Dermatol. 2007;34(4):231-6.
65. Staab D, Pariser D, Gottlieb AB, Kaufmann R, Eichenfield LF, Langley RG, et al. Low systemic absorption and good tolerability of pimecrolimus, administered as 1% cream (Elidel) in infants with atopic dermatitis–a multicenter, 3-week, open-label study. Pediatr Dermatol. 2005;22(5):465-71.
66. Paul C, Cork M, Rossi AB, Papp KA, Barbier N, de Prost Y. Safety and tolerability of 1% pimecrolimus cream among infants: experience with 1133 patients treated for up to 2 years. Pediatrics. 2006;117(1):e118-28.
67. Papp KA, Breuer K, Meurer M, Ortonne JP, Potter PC, de Prost Y, et al. Long-term treatment of atopic dermatitis with pimecrolimus cream 1% in infants does not interfere with the development of protective antibodies after vaccination. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005;52(2):247-53.
68. Arellano FM, Wentworth CE, Arana A, Fernandez C, Paul CF. Risk of lymphoma following exposure to calcineurin inhibitors and topical steroids in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol. 2007;127(4):808-16.
69. Schneeweiss S, Doherty M, Zhu S, Funch D, Schlienger RG, Fernandez-Vidaurre C, et al. Topical treatments with pimecrolimus, tacrolimus and medium- to high-potency corticosteroids, and risk of lymphoma. Dermatology. 2009;219(1):7-21.
70. Arellano FM, Arana A, Wentworth CE, Fernandez-Vidaurre C, Schlienger RG, Conde E. Lymphoma among patients with atopic dermatitis and/or treated with topical immunosuppressants in the United Kingdom. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;123(5):1111-6, 116 e1-13.
71. Margolis DJ, Abuabara K, Hoffstad OJ, Wan J, Raimondo D, Bilker WB. Association Between Malignancy and Topical Use of Pimecrolimus. JAMA Dermatol. 2015;151(6):594-9.
72. Arana A, Wentworth CW, Rivero E. et al. Lymphoma among patients with atopic dermatitis treated with topical corticosteroids and/or topical calcineurin inhibitors [abstract]. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011;64(2 Suppl 1):AB3.
73. Carr WW. Topical calcineurin inhibitors for atopic dermatitis: review and treatment recommendations. Paediatr Drugs. 2013;15(4):303-10.
74. Hui RL, Lide W, Chan J, Schottinger J, Yoshinaga M, Millares M. Association between exposure to topical tacrolimus or pimecrolimus and cancers. Ann Pharmacother. 2009;43(12):1956-63.
75. Arana A, Wentworth CE, Fernandez-Vidaurre C, Schlienger RG, Conde E, Arellano FM. Incidence of cancer in the general population and in patients with or without atopic dermatitis in the U.K. Br J Dermatol. 2010;163(5):1036-43.
76. Legendre L, Barnetche T, Mazereeuw-Hautier J, Meyer N, Murrell D, Paul C. Risk of lymphoma in patients with atopic dermatitis and the role of topical treatment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2015;72(6):992-1002.
77. Margolis DJ, Hoffstad O, Bilker W. Lack of association between exposure to topical calcineurin inhibitors and skin cancer in adults. Dermatology. 2007;214(4):289-95.
78. Mohn CH, Blix HS, Halvorsen JA, Nafstad P, Valberg M, Lagerlov P. Incidence Trends of Atopic Dermatitis in Infancy and Early Childhood in a Nationwide Prescription Registry Study in Norway. JAMA Netw Open. 2018;1(7):e184145.
79. Hill DA, Spergel JM. The atopic march: Critical evidence and clinical relevance. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2018;120(2):131-7.
80. Siegfried EC, Jaworski JC, Hebert AA. Topical calcineurin inhibitors and lymphoma risk: evidence update with implications for daily practice. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2013;14(3):163-78.
81. Paller AS, Fölster-Holst R, Chen SC, et al. No evidence of increased cancer incidence in children using topical tacrolimus for atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2020;83:375-81.
82. Siegfried EC, Jaworski JC, Kaiser JD, Hebert AA. Systematic review of published trials: long-term safety of topical corticosteroids and topical calcineurin inhibitors in pediatric patients with atopic dermatitis. BMC Pediatr. 2016;16:75.
83. Product monograph including patient medication information Elidel® (Pimecrolimus) Cream, 1%, 2019. https://pdf.hres.ca/dpd_pm/00053301.PDF. Accessed 23 June 2020.