Figure captions
Fig 1 The fortune of unweaned infants (UIs) ofRhinopithecus roxellana following male takeovers: of 31 unweaned infants that were present during male replacement, 27 infants survived and 4 infants died of male infanticide during the study period 2006 and 2020. (Number of females/infants observed showing a particular behavior are shown in circles).
Fig 2 Variations in fetal and infant death rates during the male replacement. Statistically significant increases were seen fetal death rate following male replacement. No parallel increase was seen in death of infant and fetal +infant, indicating an evidence for hypothesis that a multilevel society of golden snub-nosed monkeys facilitate female counterstrategies against male infanticide.
Fig 3 Differences in size of social unit (one male unit, OMU) with and without recorded of male attacks on infants and infanticide indicating an evidence for hypothesis that larger OMU size can lead to less risk of being killed or attacked because stronger female-female joint defense and vigilance of risk detection might also be more efficient.
Fig 4 After male replacement, new males showed two strategies, either aggression or tolerance, which would bring different reproductive success. When males adopted a strategy of aggression, they obtained increased reproductive success from killing infants because they sired the next offspring of victims’ mother sooner. However, they completely lost benefits as lactating females emigrated if the first set of attack did not kill the offspring. Therefore, male would benefit from their strategies because (a) male tenures are longer than inter-birth intervals of female if keeping mothers and their unweaned infant in their social unit, (b) tenures of tolerant male are longer tenures than those of aggressive male if the male tolerate the unweaned infant without attack.