4. Discussion
Protection, conservation and sustainable management of forest resources
are often challenging (Siry et al., 2003), especially for a country like
Bangladesh. The forest resources of the country are already in a
critical state because of a number of reasons, including high dependency
of a large number of marginalized people for their livelihood
(Moslehuddin et al., 2018; Byron and Arnold 1999). Supporting additional
people to take refuge, as a result of violence in a neighboring country,
seems to have aggravated current deforestation rate (Alam et al., 2014),
particularly in an environmentally fragile ecosystem zone.
Close inspection of LULC maps (Fig. 2a) indicated the distribution of
degraded forests in the study area but its extent was low, prior to
influx. Although forest resources in the peninsula are primary source of
livelihoods for local people (Tani and Rahman, 2018), influx of Rohingya
intensified process of degradation that led to severe deforestation
(Fig. 2 b– c). Loss of forest continued since then as depicted
by Fig. 2 (b– c), suggesting a loss of 1600– 2200 ha
in 2018 and 3200 ha in 2019. These findings are in accord with previous
works (Rashid et al. 2020; Ahmed et al. 2019; Hassan et al. 2018)
despite there are differences in terms of data and methods. Figure 2
(a-c) also illustrated Rohingya makeshift camps and increasing number of
deforested and degraded vegetation patches, especially in close
proximity to camps. A similar observation is made in Pakistan (Lodhi et
al. 1998), Malawi (Babu and Hassan, 1995), Sudan (Hagenlocher et al.
2012) and Nepal (Birendra and Nagata, 2006) that deforestation increases
substantially in the event of a sudden humanitarian crisis like
Rohingya. Further, it is important to note that greater increase of
fuelwood collection by the Rohingya communities resulted not only in
clearing of forest in around the camps but also exposing top soil in the
surrounding environments which can be highly detrimental. Field works as
well as a previous work (Moslehudding et al., 2018) support this
observation that top soil is being exposed due to pulling of remnant of
trees, and such practice is albeit unhealthy for nutrient cycle of the
forested ecosystem (Chen and Li, 2003).
As illegal logging and fuelwood collection are two important activities
by the Rohingya communities at present, the extent of forest cover
degradation is increasing over time (Table 5, Fig. 4). This type of
deterioration is affecting biomass and carbon stock of the area (Table
9) which could enhance global warming (Panja, 2020). Because of forest
clearance, for instance, land surface temperature (LST) of the study
area increased significantly from pre– to
post– influx (Rashid et al. 2020), a very influential factor
that affects local climate variability (Wang et al. 2012). As release of
carbon to the atmosphere could expedite global warming, additional loss
of forest cover potentially can lead to change in regional climatic
system (Bonan, 2008).
Since mixed forest, and canopy forest play an important role in
ecosystem functioning, particularly in the study area, their influence
on the loss of AGB is noteworthy than shrubs and planted young tree
covers. It is also observed that 27,600 tons of carbon may have released
to the atmosphere between 2017 and 2019 which may increase to about
71,920 tons in the future as showed by prediction. In addition,
fragmentation of forest patches due to intensified pressure on resources
can have profound impact on wildlife habitat. For example, there were
two active elephant corridors within the study area, including multiple
routes for their movement, prior to Rohingya influx (Motaleb and Ahmed,
2016). Widespread fragmentation of forest covers however reduced the
extent of their habitat, causing restricted movement of the Asian
elephant (Eliphus Maximus ) between adjacent habitats of
‘Teknaf– Shilkhali– Whykheong– Inani– Ukhia– Ghundhum– Myanmar’
and
‘Dhoapalong– Himchari– Panerchara– Rajarkul– Naikhongchari’
(Motaleb and Ahmed, 2016). As a result, thirty– eight elephants
were trapped inside Cox’s Bazar– Teknaf peninsula (National
Geographic, 2018), often leading to human– elephant conflicts
(UNHCR & IUCN Bangladesh, 2018). Evidence suggests that
human– elephant conflict increased to a greater number in
recent times that caused killing of 13 people since August 2017 (McVeigh
and Peri, 2018; UNHCR & IUCN Bangladesh, 2018). Further, an increase of
fuelwood consumption decreases fodder for elephant species, which is an
utmost sign of deterioration of overall ecosystem health. Furthermore,
unwise harvesting of forest biomass can jeopardize human wellbeing and
ecological sustainability (Vogt et al. 2007 cited in Panja, 2020).
Based on population, physiography, accessibility and other factors
(Table 3), this study predicted forest cover scenario for 2023 and 2027
(Fig. 4, Table 7) which revealed that, if current deforestation rate
continues and no more Rohingya population is added further, the extent
of degraded forest could increase to 3080 ha and 5120 ha, compare to
2019. This can enhance deterioration of ecosystem function and services
in the study area, urgent actions are therefore warranted.
The findings of this work are generally aligned with observations across
various settings of the world that the impact of refugees on the local
environment can be staggering (Hagenlocher et al. 2012; Ndyeshumba,
2000), though primary outcome can be widespread deforestation (Black,
1994). Loss of natural resources is expected to continue in the coming
years since repatriation is in halt despite many attempts of the host
country, Bangladesh. Since the study area is very prone to landslide,
further disappearance of forest cover would not only detrimental to
environmental degradation but can lead to frequent slope failures, which
may put both Rohingya and local communities at extreme risk of landslide
hazards (Ahmed et al. 2020). As Rohingya populations (currently 932,940)
in the study area outnumbered local population of 471,768 (BBS, 2011),
various issues, besides environmental degradation, are often reported
including social conflict between the two competing groups. We assert
that the findings of this work can contribute significantly to devise
strategies for conserving and managing forest ecosystem of an
ecologically critical area. Hence, government of Bangladesh (GoB) and
development partners can prioritize ecosystem management to promote
ecological sustainability in the study area.