References
(1) Margolis, J. R.; Chen, J. T.; Kong, Y.; Peter, R. H.; Behar, V. S.; Kisslo, J. A. The Diagnostic and Prognostic Significance of Coronary Artery Calcification. A Report of 800 Cases. Radiology1980 , 137 (3), 609–616. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiology.137.3.7444045.
(2) Donnan, G. A.; Fisher, M.; Macleod, M.; Davis, S. M. Stroke.Lancet 2008 , 371 (9624), 1612–1623. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60694-7.
(3) American stroke association. Atherosclerosis and Stroke https://www.strokeassociation.org/en/about-stroke/stroke-risk-factors/understanding-risky-conditions/atherosclerosis-and-stroke.
(4) Agatston, A. S.; Janowitz, W. R.; Hildner, F. J.; Zusmer, N. R.; Viamonte, M.; Detrano, R. Quantification of Coronary Artery Calcium Using Ultrafast Computed Tomography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.1990 , 15 (4), 827–832.
(5) van der Bijl, N.; Joemai, R. M. S.; Geleijns, J.; Bax, J. J.; Schuijf, J. D.; de Roos, A.; Kroft, L. J. M. Assessment of Agatston Coronary Artery Calcium Score Using Contrast-Enhanced CT Coronary Angiography. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2010 , 195 (6), 1299–1305. https://doi.org/10.2214/AJR.09.3734.
(6) Feigin, V. L.; Forouzanfar, M. H.; Krishnamurthi, R.; Mensah, G. A.; Connor, M.; Bennett, D. A.; Moran, A. E.; Sacco, R. L.; Anderson, L.; Truelsen, T.; et al. Global and Regional Burden of Stroke during 1990-2010: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.Lancet (London, England) 2014 , 383 (9913), 245–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(13)61953-4.
(7) Demer, L. L.; Tintut, Y. Vascular Calcification. Circulation2008 , 117 (22), 2938–2948. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.743161.
(8) BLANKENHORN, D. H.; STERN, D. Calcification of the Coronary Arteries. Am. J. Roentgenol. Radium Ther. Nucl. Med.1959 , 81 (5), 772–777. https://doi.org/13650017.
(9) Rifkin, R. D.; Parisi, A. F.; Folland, E. Coronary Calcification in the Diagnosis of Coronary Artery Disease. Am. J. Cardiol.1979 , 44 (1), 141–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9149(79)90263-7.
(10) Sousa, P. A.; Bettencourt, N.; Dias Ferreira, N.; Carvalho, M.; Leite, D.; Ferreira, W.; de Jesus, I.; Gama, V. Role of Cardiac Multidetector Computed Tomography in the Exclusion of Ischemic Etiology in Heart Failure Patients. Rev. Port. Cardiol. 2014 ,33 (10), 629–636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.repc.2014.02.028.
(11) Oudkerk, M.; Stillman, A. E.; Halliburton, S. S.; Kalender, W. A.; Möhlenkamp, S.; McCollough, C. H.; Vliegenthart, R.; Shaw, L. J.; Stanford, W.; Taylor, A. J.; et al. Coronary Artery Calcium Screening: Current Status and Recommendations from the European Society of Cardiac Radiology and North American Society for Cardiovascular Imaging.Int. J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2008 , 24 (6), 645–671. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10554-008-9319-z.
(12) Budoff, M. J.; Shaw, L. J.; Liu, S. T.; Weinstein, S. R.; Mosler, T. P.; Tseng, P. H.; Flores, F. R.; Callister, T. Q.; Raggi, P.; Berman, D. S. Long-Term Prognosis Associated With Coronary Calcification. Observations From a Registry of 25,253 Patients. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2007 , 49 (18), 1860–1870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2006.10.079.
(13) Hanifehpour, R.; Motevalli, M.; Ghanaati, H.; Shahriari, M.; Ghasabeh, M. A. Diagnostic Accuracy of Coronary Calcium Score Less than 100 in Excluding Coronary Artery Disease. Iran. J. Radiol.2016 , 13 (2), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.5812/iranjradiol.16705.
(14) Stone, N. J.; Robinson, J. G.; Lichtenstein, A. H.; Bairey Merz, C. N.; Blum, C. B.; Eckel, R. H.; Goldberg, A. C.; Gordon, D.; Levy, D.; Lloyd-Jones, D. M.; et al. 2013 ACC/AHA Guideline on the Treatment of Blood Cholesterol to Reduce Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Risk in Adults. Circulation 2014 , 129 (25 suppl 2), S1–S45. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.0000437738.63853.7a.
(15) Peters, S. A. E.; den Ruijter, H. M.; Bots, M. L.; Moons, K. G. M. Improvements in Risk Stratification for the Occurrence of Cardiovascular Disease by Imaging Subclinical Atherosclerosis: A Systematic Review.Heart 2012 , 98 (3), 177–184. https://doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2011-300747.
(16) Raggi, P.; Callister, T. Q.; Cooil, B.; He, Z.-X.; Lippolis, N. J.; Russo, D. J.; Zelinger, A.; Mahmarian, J. J. Identification of Patients at Increased Risk of First Unheralded Acute Myocardial Infarction by Electron-Beam Computed Tomography. Circulation 2000 ,101 (8), 850–855. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.101.8.850.
(17) Budoff, M. J.; Yang, T. P.; Shavelle, R. M.; Lamont, D. H.; Brundage, B. H. Ethnic Differences in Coronary Atherosclerosis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2002 , 39 (3), 408–412.
(18) Bild, D. E.; Detrano, R.; Peterson, D.; Guerci, A.; Liu, K.; Shahar, E.; Ouyang, P.; Jackson, S.; Saad, M. F. Ethnic Differences in Coronary Calcification. Circulation 2005 , 111(10), 1313–1320. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000157730.94423.4B.
(19) McClelland, R. L.; Chung, H.; Detrano, R.; Post, W.; Kronmal, R. A. Distribution of Coronary Artery Calcium by Race, Gender, and Age.Circulation 2006 , 113 (1), 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.580696.
(20) Diez Roux, A. V.; Detrano, R.; Jackson, S.; Jacobs, D. R.; Schreiner, P. J.; Shea, S.; Szklo, M. Acculturation and Socioeconomic Position as Predictors of Coronary Calcification in a Multiethnic Sample. Circulation 2005 , 112 (11), 1557–1565. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.530147.
(21) Lee, T. C.; O’Malley, P. G.; Feuerstein, I.; Taylor, A. J. The Prevalence and Severity of Coronary Artery Calcification on Coronary Artery Computed Tomography in Black and White Subjects. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2003 , 41 (1), 39–44. https://doi.org/12570942.
(22) McEvoy, J. W.; Blaha, M. J.; DeFilippis, A. P.; Budoff, M. J.; Nasir, K.; Blumenthal, R. S.; Jones, S. R. Coronary Artery Calcium Progression: An Important Clinical Measurement? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010 , 56 (20), 1613–1622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2010.06.038.
(23) Achenbach, S.; Ropers, D.; Pohle, K.; Leber, A.; Thilo, C.; Knez, A.; Menendez, T.; Maeffert, R.; Kusus, M.; Regenfus, M.; et al. Influence of Lipid-Lowering Therapy on the Progression of Coronary Artery Calcification: A Prospective Evaluation. Circulation2002 , 106 (9), 1077–1082. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000027567.49283.FF.
(24) Harold, R.; Rimsky, D.; Fei, T.; R, M. G. Abstract 17248: Statin Therapy Increases Coronary Artery Calcification Scores.Circulation 2018 , 138 (Suppl_1), A17248–A17248. https://doi.org/10.1161/circ.138.suppl_1.17248.
(25) Callister, T. Q.; Raggi, P.; Cooil, B.; Lippolis, N. J.; Russo, D. J. Effect of HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitors on Coronary Artery Disease as Assessed by Electron-Beam Computed Tomography. N. Engl. J. Med.1998 , 339 (27), 1972–1978. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199812313392703.
(26) Achenbach, S.; Ropers, D.; Pohle, K.; Leber, A.; Thilo, C.; Knez, A.; Menendez, T.; Maeffert, R.; Kusus, M.; Regenfus, M.; et al. Influence of Lipid-Lowering Therapy on the Progression of Coronary Artery Calcification. Circulation 2002 , 106 (9), 1077–1082. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000027567.49283.FF.
(27) Mulders, T. A.; Sivapalaratnam, S.; Stroes, E. S. G.; Kastelein, J. J. P.; Guerci, A. D.; Pinto-Sietsma, S.-J. Asymptomatic Individuals With a Positive Family History for Premature Coronary Artery Disease and Elevated Coronary Calcium Scores Benefit From Statin Treatment.JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2012 , 5 (3), 252–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmg.2011.11.014.
(28) Raggi, P.; Davidson, M.; Callister, T. Q.; Welty, F. K.; Bachmann, G. A.; Hecht, H.; Rumberger, J. A. Aggressive Versus Moderate Lipid-Lowering Therapy in Hypercholesterolemic Postmenopausal Women.Circulation 2005 , 112 (4), 563–571. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.104.512681.
(29) Schmermund, A.; Achenbach, S.; Budde, T.; Buziashvili, Y.; Förster, A.; Friedrich, G.; Henein, M.; Kerkhoff, G.; Knollmann, F.; Kukharchuk, V.; et al. Effect of Intensive Versus Standard Lipid-Lowering Treatment With Atorvastatin on the Progression of Calcified Coronary Atherosclerosis Over 12 Months. Circulation 2006 ,113 (3), 427–437. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.568147.
(30) Liu, W.; Zhang, Y.; Yu, C. M.; Ji, Q. W.; Cai, M.; Zhao, Y. X.; Zhou, Y. J. Current Understanding of Coronary Artery Calcification.J. Geriatr. Cardiol. 2015 , 12 (6), 668–675. https://doi.org/10.11909/j.issn.1671-5411.2015.06.012.
(31) Patel, A. A.; Fine, J.; Naghavi, M.; Budoff, M. J. Radiation Exposure and Coronary Artery Calcium Scans in the Society for Heart Attack Prevention and Eradication Cohort. Int. J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2019 , 35 (1), 179–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10554-018-1431-0.
(32) Hunold, P.; Vogt, F. M.; Schmermund, A.; Debatin, J. F.; Kerkhoff, G.; Budde, T.; Erbel, R.; Ewen, K.; Barkhausen, J. Radiation Exposure during Cardiac CT: Effective Doses at Multi–Detector Row CT and Electron-Beam CT. Radiology 2003 , 226 (1), 145–152. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2261011365.
(33) Hecht, H.; Blaha, M. J.; Berman, D. S.; Nasir, K.; Budoff, M.; Leipsic, J.; Blankstein, R.; Narula, J.; Rumberger, J.; Shaw, L. J. Clinical Indications for Coronary Artery Calcium Scoring in Asymptomatic Patients: Expert Consensus Statement from the Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography. J. Cardiovasc. Comput. Tomogr.2017 , 11 (2), 157–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcct.2017.02.010.
(34) Folsom, A. R.; Kronmal, R. A.; Detrano, R. C.; O’Leary, D. H.; Bild, D. E.; Bluemke, D. A.; Budoff, M. J.; Liu, K.; Shea, S.; Szklo, M.; et al. Coronary Artery Calcification Compared With Carotid Intima-Media Thickness in the Prediction of Cardiovascular Disease Incidence<Subtitle>The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)</Subtitle> Arch. Intern. Med. 2008 ,168 (12), 1333. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.168.12.1333.
(35) Elias-Smale, S. E.; Wieberdink, R. G.; Odink, A. E.; Hofman, A.; Hunink, M. G. M.; Koudstaal, P. J.; Krestin, G. P.; Breteler, M. M. B.; van der Lugt, A.; Witteman, J. C. M. Burden of Atherosclerosis Improves the Prediction of Coronary Heart Disease but Not Cerebrovascular Events: The Rotterdam Study. Eur. Heart J. 2011 , 32 (16), 2050–2058. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehr125.
(36) Newman, A. B.; Naydeck, B. L.; Ives, D. G.; Boudreau, R. M.; Sutton-Tyrrell, K.; O’Leary, D. H.; Kuller, L. H. Coronary Artery Calcium, Carotid Artery Wall Thickness and Cardiovascular Disease Outcomes in Adults 70 to 99 Years Old. Am. J. Cardiol.2008 , 101 (2), 186. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AMJCARD.2007.07.075.
(37) Hermann, D. M.; Gronewold, J.; Lehmann, N.; Moebus, S.; Jöckel, K.-H.; Bauer, M.; Erbel, R.; Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study Investigative Group. Coronary Artery Calcification Is an Independent Stroke Predictor in the General Population. Stroke 2013 , 44 (4), 1008–1013. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.678078.
(38) Gibson, A. O.; Blaha, M. J.; Arnan, M. K.; Sacco, R. L.; Szklo, M.; Herrington, D. M.; Yeboah, J. Coronary Artery Calcium and Incident Cerebrovascular Events in an Asymptomatic Cohort. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2014 , 7 (11), 1108–1115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmg.2014.07.009.
(39) Gunnoo, T.; Hasan, N.; Khan, M. S.; Slark, J.; Bentley, P.; Sharma, P. Quantifying the Risk of Heart Disease Following Acute Ischaemic Stroke: A Meta-Analysis of over 50 000 Participants. BMJ Open2016 , 6 (1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009535.
(40) Calvet, D.; Song, D.; Yoo, J.; Turc, G.; Sablayrolles, J. L.; Choi, B. W.; Heo, J. H.; Mas, J. L. Predicting Asymptomatic Coronary Artery Disease in Patients with Ischemic Stroke and Transient Ischemic Attack : The PRECORIS Score. Stroke 2014 , 45(1), 82–86. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.003414.
(41) Yoo, J.; Yang, J. H.; Choi, B. W.; Kim, Y. D.; Nam, H. S.; Choi, H. Y.; Cho, H. J.; Lee, H. S.; Cha, M. J.; Choi, D.; et al. The Frequency and Risk of Preclinical Coronary Artery Disease Detected Using Multichannel Cardiac Computed Tomography in Patients with Ischemic Stroke. Cerebrovasc. Dis. 2012 , 33 (3), 286–294. https://doi.org/10.1159/000334980.
(42) Beigneux, Y.; Sablayrolles, J.; Varenne, O.; Mas, J.; Calvet, D. Coronary Artery Calcium Score Improves the Prediction of Occult Coronary Artery Stenosis in Ischemic Stroke Patients. J. Am. Hear. Assoc. Cardiovasc. Cerebrovasc. Dis. 2016 , 5 (11). https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.116.003770.
(43) Lee, C.-D.; Jae, S. Y. Lifestyle Factors and Coronary Artery Calcification. Pulse (Basel, Switzerland) 2014 , 2(1–4), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1159/000376595.
(44) Choi, S.-Y.; Kim, D.; Oh, B.-H.; Kim, M.; Park, H. E.; Lee, C.-H.; Cho, S.-H. General and Abdominal Obesity and Abdominal Visceral Fat Accumulation Associated with Coronary Artery Calcification in Korean Men. Atherosclerosis 2010 , 213 (1), 273–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2010.07.052.
(45) Lehmann, N.; Möhlenkamp, S.; Mahabadi, A. A.; Schmermund, A.; Roggenbuck, U.; Seibel, R.; Grönemeyer, D.; Budde, T.; Dragano, N.; Stang, A.; et al. Effect of Smoking and Other Traditional Risk Factors on the Onset of Coronary Artery Calcification: Results of the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study. Atherosclerosis 2014 , 232(2), 339–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2013.11.045.
(46) Arnson, Y.; Rozanski, A.; Gransar, H.; Hayes, S. W.; Friedman, J. D.; Thomson, L. E. J.; Berman, D. S. Impact of Exercise on the Relationship Between CAC Scores and All-Cause Mortality. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2017 , 10 (12), 1461–1468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmg.2016.12.030.
(47) Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ (CTT) Collaborators; Mihaylova, B.; Emberson, J.; Blackwell, L.; Keech, A.; Simes, J.; Barnes, E. H.; Voysey, M.; Gray, A.; Collins, R.; et al. The Effects of Lowering LDL Cholesterol with Statin Therapy in People at Low Risk of Vascular Disease: Meta-Analysis of Individual Data from 27 Randomised Trials.Lancet 2012 , 380 (9841), 581–590. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60367-5.
(48) D., M. M.; A., D. D.; R., M. J.; J., B. M.; Khurram, N.; G., S. M.; Ron, B.; J., B. M.; Philip, G.; R., F. A. Use of Coronary Artery Calcium Testing to Guide Aspirin Utilization for Primary Prevention: Estimates From the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 2014 , 7 (3), 453–460. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.113.000690.