Martian meteorites are our only samples from Mars, thus far. Currently, there are a total of 252 individual samples originating from ≥11 ejection sites with crystallization ages varying from 4.5 to 0.15 Ga. Analyses, through techniques that are also used on terrestrial rocks, allow fundamental insights into the bulk composition, differentiation and evolution, mantle heterogeneity, and role of secondary processes, such as aqueous alteration and shock, on Mars. Martian meteorites display a wide range in mineralogy and chemistry, but are predominantly basaltic in composition. Over the past six years, the number of martian meteorites recovered has almost doubled allowing for studies to evaluate these meteorites as suites of martian igneous rocks. However, the martian meteorites represent a biased sampling of the martian surface with unknown ejection locations. Thus, the geology of Mars cannot be unraveled solely by analyzing meteorites. Rocks measured by rovers at the surface are of distinct composition to the meteorites, highlighting the importance of Mars missions, especially sample return. The Mars 2020 rover will collect and cache — for eventual return to Earth — over 30 diverse surface samples from Jezero crater. These returned samples will allow for Earth-based state-of-the-art analyses on diverse martian rocks with known field context. The complementary study of returned samples and meteorites will help constrain the evolution of the martian interior and surface. Here, we review recent finds and advances in the study of martian meteorites and provide a wish list of returned samples that would complement and enhance their study.

Exoplanets exhibit properties suggestive of a diversity of worlds far exceeding that observed within our own solar system. This diversity, combined with limited data, poses challenges for future exoplanet characterization, especially regarding life detection: not only is the diversity planets unprecedented, but the low resolution and s/n data available to current and near-future technology demand we improve our ability to infer properties of planetary atmospheres, surfaces and potential signs of life from very little data. For this reason, recent consensus recommendations from both within the exoplanet science community, and without, are directing the field to move from searching from specific products of life to developing probabilistic frameworks for inferring the presence of life that encompass entire planetary systems. Here, we demonstrate a new framework based on statistical characterization of planetary atmospheric chemistries with the goal to provide the quantitative tools required by this approach. We validate these tools against current observational constraints available for Jovian worlds by constructing chemical reaction networks (CRNs) from the atmospheres of hot jupiters simulated over a wide range of temperatures and metallicities using VULCAN. For each model, we calculated measures of the CRN topology and more traditional measures of disequilbrium. To model the uncertainty in observations, these properties were then used as the basis for an interpolation function, which was then fed a series of 10,000 point Gaussian distributions of possible initial conditions to simulate the likelihood distribution of possible atmospheric models centered around a specific observable such as T or metallicity. We present results demonstrating how our multivariate, statistical approach permits quantifying distance from disequilibrium in Jovian atmospheres. We discuss implications for inferring the presence of life as a driver of atmospheric disequilibrium on terrestrial worlds, and how technologically produced molecules could influence CRN topology.

Although gender parity has been reached at the graduate level in the geosciences, women remain a minority in top-level positions. First authorship of peer-reviewed scholarship is a measure of academic success and is often used to project potential in the hiring process. Given the importance of first author publications for hiring and advancement, we sought to quantify whether women are underrepresented as first authors relative to their representation in the field. We compiled first author names across 13 leading geoscience journals from January 2013 to April 2019 (n = 35,183). Using a database of 216,286 names from 79 countries, across 89 languages, we classified the likely gender associated with each author’s given (first) name. We also estimated the gender distribution of authors who publish using only initials, which may itself be a strategy employed by some women to preempt perceived (and actual) gender bias in the publication process. Female-author names represent 13-30% of all first authors in our database, and are significantly underrepresented relative to the proportion of women in early career positions (30-50%). The proportion of female-name first authors varies significantly by subfield, reflecting variation in representation of women across subdisciplines. In geoscience, the quantification of this first authorship gender gap supports the hypothesis that the publication process; namely, achievement or allocation of first authorship is biased by social factors, which may modulate career success of women in the sciences.

Exploration of Venus in the 1970–1990’s revealed that the geology of Venus, the most Earth-like of the terrestrial planets, was decidedly un-Earth-like, with no plate tectonics, and no record of the first 80% of its history. A major outstanding question is whether Venus is still volcanically active today. We find that regions of Ganis Chasma have low radar emissivity values, due to low volumes of high dielectric minerals formed by surface – atmosphere weathering on the timescales of around 10s Ma. This confirms the presence of geologically recent volcanism in association with this major tectonic rift zone. The spatial correspondence of this emissivity signature with transient thermal anomalies suggests that Venus has been volcanically active at this site for at least the last few decades, a prediction that can be tested with space missions to Venus in the coming decade.

Nearly isotropic comets with very long orbital period are supposed to come from the Oort Cloud. Recent observational and theoretical studies have greatly revealed the dynamical nature of this cloud and its evolutionary history. However, many issues are yet to be known. Our goal is to understand current structure of this cloud as well as its dynamical origin. For estimating the current structure of the Oort Cloud, key information lies in the original orbit of the Oort Cloud new comets (OCNCs) that are defined at a distance where these objects do not receive gravitational perturbation from major planets (such as at rg = 250 au from the Sun before comets enter into the planetary region). There have been several attempts to obtain OCNC’s original orbits, but it never has been an easy task. This requires numerical orbit propagation of the observed comets with high accuracy including perturbation from major disturbing bodies. In addition, non-gravitational forces often play significant roles here. First and foremost, the orbit determination of OCNC includes substantially large uncertainty because of limited number of observational arcs and very large eccentricity of the comets (~1). Here we show our preliminary result of comparison of various catalogues of OCNCs’ original orbital elements at rg = 250 au: So-called the Warsaw catalogues by Krolikowska, the ephemeris given by MPC (Minor Planet Center), that given by Horizons/JPL, and others calculated by a few individuals (Marsden, Kinoshita, and Nakano). The resulting orbits that these catalogues yield are overall similar, but sometimes they are starkly different by reasons yet to be known. Through a series of plots with a help of our own orbit propagation using numerical and analytic methods, we give considerations on which catalogue yields the information that is the most significant (or the most fundamental) for understanding structure, origin, and evolution of the Oort Cloud.

Solar transients impinging on Earth’s magnetosphere often present a larger velocity than the surrounding solar wind, leading to a different response of the bow shock-magnetosheath system. As such, we intend to provide a systematic study of the global effects of different solar wind Mach numbers in a pure quasi-perpendicular configuration with a realistic three-dimensional terrestrial-like curved bow shock. Simulations have been performed with the hybrid code LatHyS, which is based on the widely used CAM-CL scheme. In particular, we have studied the interaction with the terrestrial magnetosphere of a solar wind at different Alfvénic Mach numbers and low-beta (less than unity, ratio between the thermal to the magnetic pressures). One of most noteworthy outcome is the generation of an intense rippling phenomenon propagating along the bow shock surface as the incoming Mach number increases. A similar rippling has been observed in-situ with satellites, as well as studied with computer simulations. However, the latter have mainly addressed by adopting ad-hoc planar-shock initial configurations, which still leaves poor knowledge of the possible effects on a global three-dimensional curved interaction. Our analysis then is expected to provide further insights into both the macroscopic and kinetic effects of different incoming solar wind conditions on the overall planetary bow-shock and magnetosheath structure.

Super-rotation affects - and is affected by - the distribution of dust in the martian atmosphere. We modelled this interaction during the 2018 global dust storm (GDS) of Mars Year 34 using data assimilation. Super-rotation increased by a factor of two at the peak of the GDS, as compared to the same period in the previous year which did not feature a GDS. A strong westerly jet formed in the tropical lower atmosphere, with strong easterlies above 60 km, as a result of momentum transport by thermal tides. Enhanced super-rotation is shown to have commenced 40 sols before the onset of the GDS, due to equatorward advection of dust from southern mid-latitudes. The uniform distribution of dust in the tropics resulted in a symmetric Hadley cell with a tropical upwelling branch that could efficiently transport dust vertically; this may have significantly contributed to the rapid expansion of the storm.

Accreted ice retains and preserves traces of the ocean from which it formed. In this work we study two classes of accreted ice found on Earth—frazil ice, which forms through crystallization within a supercooled water column, and congelation ice, which forms through directional freezing at an existing interface—and discuss where each might be found in the ice shells of ocean worlds. We focus our study on terrestrial ice formed in low temperature gradient environments (e.g., beneath ice shelves), consistent with conditions expected at the ice-ocean interfaces of Europa and Enceladus, and highlight the juxtaposition of compositional trends in relation to ice formed in higher temperature gradient environments (e.g., at the ocean surface). Observations from Antarctic sub-ice-shelf congelation and marine ice show that the purity of frazil ice can be nearly two orders of magnitude higher than congelation ice formed in the same low temperature gradient environment (~0.1% vs. ~10% of the ocean salinity). In addition, where congelation ice can maintain a planar ice-water interface on a microstructural scale, the efficiency of salt rejection is enhanced (~1% of the ocean salinity) and lattice soluble impurities such as chloride are preferentially incorporated. We conclude that an ice shell which forms by gradual thickening as its interior cools would be composed of congelation ice, whereas frazil ice will accumulate where the ice shell thins on local (rifts and basal fractures) or regional (latitudinal gradients) scales through the operation of an “ice pump”.

We present an axially asymmetric steady state model of Jupiter’s magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling with variable ionospheric conductivity dependent on the field-aligned current density. We use Juno and Galileo data to construct a simple model of the equatorial magnetic field, and develop a method for solving the system of partial differential equations describing magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling. Using this model we study the behavior of the system with different radial mass transport rates of magnetospheric plasma and the effect of additional field-aligned currents associated with Jupiter’s nightside partial ring current. We compare the model magnetodisc current intensities with those determined directly from magnetic field measurements in various local time sectors, and find that the value of mass transport rate of 2000 kg/s, larger than usually estimated, better accounts for the observed radial currents. We also find that the inclusion of field-aligned currents associated with Jupiter’s partial ring current helps to explain the local time variation of the radial currents, reducing the discrepancy between the model and the observations.

The year 2019 marks the 60th anniversary of the concept of radial diffusion in magnetospheric research. This makes it one of the oldest research topics in radiation belt science. While first introduced to account for the existence of the Earth’s outer belt, radial diffusion is now applied to the radiation belts of all strongly magnetized planets. But for all its study and application, radial diffusion remains an elusive process. As the theoretical picture evolved over time, so, too, did the definitions of various related concepts, such as the notion of radial transport. Whether data is scarce or not, doubts in the efficacy of the process remain due to the use of various unchecked assumptions. As a result, quantifying radial diffusion still represents a major challenge to tackle in order to advance our understanding of and ability to model radiation belt dynamics. The core objective of this review is to address the confusion that emerges from the coexistence of various definitions of radial diffusion, and to highlight the complexity and subtleties of the problem. To contextualize, we provide a historical perspective on radial diffusion research: why and how the concept of radial diffusion was introduced at Earth, how it evolved, and how it was transposed to the radiation belts of the giant planets. Then, we discuss the necessary theoretical tools to unify the evolving image of radial diffusion, describe radiation belt drift dynamics, and carry out contemporary radial diffusion research.

Can fractal analysis of a lava flow’s margin enable classification of the lava’s morphologic type (e.g., pāhoehoe)? Such classifications would provide insights into the rheology and dynamics of the flow when it was emplaced. The potential to classify lava flows from remotely-sensed data would particularly benefit the analysis of flows that are inaccessible, including flows on other planetary bodies. The technique’s current interpretive framework depends on three assumptions: (1) measured margin fractality is scale-invariant; (2) morphologic types can be uniquely distinguished based on measured margin fractality; and (3) modification of margin fractality by topography, including substrate slope and confinement, would be minimal or independently recognizable. We critically evaluate these assumptions at meter scales (1–10 m) using 15 field-collected flow margin intervals from a wide variety of morphologic types in Hawaiʻi, Iceland, and Idaho. Among the 12 margin intervals that satisfy the current framework’s suitability criteria (e.g., geomorphic freshness, shallowly-sloped substrates), we show that 5 exhibit notably scale-dependent fractality and all 5 from lava types other than ‘a‘ā or pāhoehoe would be classified as one or both of those types at some scales. Additionally, an ‘a‘ā flow on a 15° slope (Mauna Ulu, Hawaiʻi) and a spiny pāhoehoe flow confined by a stream bank (Holuhraun, Iceland) exhibit significantly depressed fractalities but lack diagnostic signatures for these modifications. We therefore conclude that all three assumptions of the current framework are invalid at meter scales and propose a new framework to leverage the potential of the underlying fractal technique while acknowledging these complexities.

Dawn storms are among the brightest events in the Jovian aurorae. Up to now, they had only been observed from Earth-based observatories, only showing the Sun-facing side of the planet. Here we show for the first time global views of the phenomenon, from its initiation to its end and from the nightside of the aurora onto the dayside. Based on Juno's first 20 orbits, some patterns now emerge. Small short-lived spots are often seen for a couple of hours before the main emission starts to brighten and evolve from a straight arc to a more irregular one in the midnight sector. As the whole feature rotates dawn-ward, the arc then separates into two arcs with a central initially void region that is progressively filled with emissions. A gap in longitude then often forms before the whole feature dims. Finally, it transforms into an equatorward-moving patch of auroral emissions associated with plasma injection signatures. Some dawn storms remain weak and never fully develop. We also found cases of successive dawn storms within a few hours. Dawn storm thus share many fundamental features with the auroral signatures of the substorms at Earth. These findings demonstrate that, whatever their sources, mass and energy do not always circulate smoothly in planetary magnetospheres. Instead they often accumulate until the magnetospheres reconfigure and generate substorm-like responses in the planetary aurorae, although the temporal and spatial scales are different for different planets.

Both in situ measurements and numerical simulations show that the charge exchange collisions between energetic ring current ions (>10keV) and cold ambient neutral atoms of the upper atmosphere and exosphere (<1eV) can be a major loss process of the ring current ions. Owing to the high volume of energetic ion source injected from the ion plasma sheet during storm time under strong convection strength, there can be a significant rate of occurrence of charge exchange collision in the inner magnetosphere, therefore contributing a significant amount of inner magnetospheric cold proton populations. Due to the different charge exchange cross sections among different reactions, cold protons are generated at different rates from different energetic ion species. In this study, both qualitative and quantitative assessments on the production and evolution of charge-exchange byproduct cold protons are performed via numerical simulations, showing that the production and evolution of the cold H+ populations can be primarily driven by the plasma sheet conditions combined with the magnetospheric convection, while having the potential to affect the dynamics of the plasmasphere and facilitate the early-stage local plasmaspheric refilling. Furthermore, the energetic heavy ions composition plays an important role determining the cold H+ contribution structure from the energetic ring current ions.

the construction of the rovers is broadly linked to the environment , geographic situation into outer space , available materials and it is based on the techniques and the methods adapted to the essential need to find a conception that limit the vibration and presents more resistance and advantages , for the EMIRS model the simulation is used to expect thermal-infrared spectrum from the surface and atmosphere of Mars and this method is adapted to help plan EMIRS observation , similarly the GC can be easily utilized to separate and identifies the atmosphere composition in addition help encounter the problems of some instruments

The Mars Environmental Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA) on board Perseverance includes first-of-their-kind sensors measuring the incident and reflected solar flux, the downwelling atmospheric IR flux, and the upwelling IR flux emitted by the surface. We use these measurements for the first 350 sols of the Mars 2020 mission (Ls ~ 6-174 deg; in Martian Year 36) to determine the surface radiative budget on Mars, and to calculate the broadband albedo (0.3-3 μm) as a function of the illumination and viewing geometry. Together with MEDA measurements of ground temperature, we calculate the thermal inertia for homogeneous terrains without the need for numerical models. We found that: (1) the observed downwelling atmospheric IR flux is significantly lower than model predictions. This is likely caused by the strong diurnal variation in aerosol opacity measured by MEDA, which is not accounted for by numerical models. (2) The albedo presents a marked non-Lambertian behavior, with lowest values near noon and highest values corresponding to low phase angles (i.e., Sun behind the observer). (3) Thermal inertia values ranged between 180 (sand dune) and 605 (bedrock-dominated material) SI units. (4) Averages across Perseverance’ traverse of albedo and thermal inertia (spatial resolution of ~3-4 m2) are in very good agreement with collocated retrievals of thermal inertia from THEMIS (spatial resolution of 100 m per pixel) and of bolometric albedo in the 0.25-2.9 μm range from (spatial resolution of ~300 km2). The results presented here are important to validate model predictions and provide ground-truth to orbital measurements.

The evolution of the climate and hydrochemistry of Mars is still a mystery but it must have been at least occasionally warm and wet to have formed the ancient fluvial and lacustrine landforms observed today. Terrestrial examples and geochemical modeling under proposed early Mars conditions show that zeolite minerals are likely to have formed under alkaline (pH > 8) conditions with low water/rock ratio and surface temperatures below 150 °C. The identification and spatial association of zeolites on the surface of Mars could thus be used to reconstruct the paleoclimate, paleohydrochemistry, and geological evolution of some locations on Mars. Previous studies identified the zeolite analcime and discuss the difficulties of identifying other zeolite species on the surface of Mars using orbital spectroscopy. We used published global mineralogical, geological, geomorphological, hydrological, physical, and elemental abundance maps and the locations of hydrous minerals detected and mapped using orbital data to create a map that delineates favorable areas to look for zeolites on Mars. We used the data-driven fuzzy-based weights-of-evidence method to identify and map favorable areas for zeolites on the surface of Mars up to ± 40° latitudes towards the poles. The final map shows that the eastern and western Arabia deposits, some sites in the Medusae Fossae formation, and some areas within and near Valles Marineris, Mawrth Vallis, highlands north of Hellas, and the Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum regions would be favorable areas to look for zeolites using targeted orbital spectral analysis or future in situ observations.

There are records of past Earth climates that were ice-free all the way to the poles (Barron 1983), which can be described as “hothouse” climates. These hothouse climates can be contrasted with an “all-tropics” planet, where the tropics are defined by the atmospheric dynamics, i.e. the Hadley Cell extent (Faulk et al. 2017). This classification is thus primarily dependent on a planet’s rotation, rather than its ice-free extent or surface temperatures. We investigate the parameter space between Earth and an all-tropics world using the open-source GCM Isca, developed by Vallis et al (2018). We take an Earth analog and perform a parameter sweep in two dimensions: global reservoir depth (10m, 1m, 1cm) and rotation period (8 days, 4 days, 1 day). The sweep will allow us to explore the effects of surface liquid coverage and large-scale atmospheric circulation on an Earth-like climate. To better represent the distribution of surface water, we utilize the surface hydrology scheme developed by Faulk et al. (2020) for the Titan Atmosphere Model. In this presentation we provide a status report and analysis of initial findings.

Atmospheric dust is a more extreme modifier of weather and climate on Mars than water vapor is on Earth. Global dust storms enshroud Mars in a veil of dust for months and have major implications for past and present climate, geologic history, habitability, and exploration. Yet their mysterious origins mean we remain unable to realistically simulate or predict them. In this White Paper, we find that key Knowledge Gaps are: A. how dust is lifted; B. constraints on near-surface winds and boundary-layer processes; C. the distribution of mobile surface dust; and D. the key processes and feedbacks by which dust storms begin and evolve. To make progress in the next decade, we make four Recommendations in order of priority: #1. Properly accommodate a minimum payload of meteorological and aeolian sensors on future Mars surface missions; #2. Continue orbital monitoring of the evolving surface dust distribution; #3. Expand orbital measurements to include winds and full diurnal coverage; and #4. Continue orbital monitoring and add surface measurements of aerosols during dust storms.